Chap-11 Data Analysis

Basic Objectives Of Data Analysis

There Are Three Objectives In Data Analysis:
Getting a Feel for the Data

The feel for the data will give preliminary ideas of how good
the scale are , how well the coding and entering of data
have been done , and so on.
Suppose an item tapped on a 7-point scale has been
improperly coded and /or entered as 8; this will be
highlighted by the maximum values on the descriptive
statistics and the error can be rectified.

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• The mean, the range, the standard deviation, and the
variance in the data will give the researcher a good idea
of how the respondents have reacted to the items in the
questionnaires and how good the items and measures
are.
• If the response to each individual item can in a scale
does not have a good spread or range and shows very
little variability, then the researcher would suspect that
the particular question was probably not properly
worded and respondents did not quite understand the
intent of the question.
• Biases, if any, could also be detected if the respondents
have tended to respond similarly to all items-that is,
stuck to only certain points on the scale.

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• The maximum and minimum scores, mean,
standard deviation, variance, and other statistics
can be easily obtained, and these will indicate
whether the responses range satisfactorily over
the scale.
• Remember that if there is no variability in the
data, then no variance can be explained.
• Researchers go to great lengths obtaining the
central tendency, the range, the dispersion, and
other statistics for every single item measuring
the dependent and independent variables,
especially when the measures for a concept are
newly developed.

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• It is always prudent to obtain :
– The frequency distributions for the demographic
variables,
– The mean, standard deviation, range, and variance on
the other dependent & independent variables , and
– An inter correlation matrix of the variables,
irrespective of whether or not the hypotheses are
directly related to these analyses.
– These statistics give a feel for the data.
– In other words, examination of the measure of central
tendency, and how clustered or dispersed the
variables are, gives a good idea of how well the
questions were framed for tapping the concept.

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 – The correlation matrix will give an indication of
closely related or unrelated the variables under
investigation are.
– If the correlation between two variables happens
to be high –say, over .75 –we would start to
wonder whether they are really two different
concepts, whether they are measuring the same
concept.

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Testing the Goodness of the Data
– Testing the goodness of data can be accomplished
by submitting the data for factor analysis, obtaining
the Cronbache's alpha or the split-half reliability of
the measures, and so on.
– Establishing the goodness of data lends credibility
to all subsequent analysis and findings.
– Hence, getting a feel for the data becomes the
necessary first step in all data analysis.
– Based on this initial feel further detailed analysis
may be done to test the goodness of the data.

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The reliability and validity of the measures can
now be tested.
– Reliability: the reliability of a measure is
established by testing for both consistency and
stability.
– Consistency indicates how well the items measuring
a concept hang together as a set.
– Cronbache's alpha is a reliability coefficient that
indicates how well the items in a set are positively
correlated to one another.

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• Cronbache's alpha is computed in terms of the
average intercorrelations among the items
measuring the concept.
• The closer cronbache’s alpha is to 1, the higher
the internal consistency reliability.
• Split-half reliability coefficient reflects the
correlations between two halves of a set of items,
the coefficients obtained will vary depending on
how the scale is split.
• Sometimes split-half reliability is obtained to test
for consistency when more than one scale,
diamensions, or factor, is assessed.

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• The items across each of the diamensions or
factors are split, based on some
predetermined logic.
• In almost every case, Cronbache's alpha is an
adequate test of internal consistency
reliability.
• Validity: factorial validity can be established
by submitting the data for factor analysis.

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• Criterion – related validity: can be established by testing
for the power of the measure to differentiate individuals
who are known to be different.
Convergent- Validity: can be established when there is high
degree of correlation between two different sources
responding to the same measure. For example: both
supervisions and subordinates respond similarly to a
perceived reward system measure administered to them.
• Discriminant validity: can be established when two
distinctly different concepts are not correlated to each
other as for example, courage and honesty; leadership
and motivation; attitudes and behaviors.

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Testing the Hypothesis Developed for The
Research.
• Hypothesis testing is achieved by choosing the
appropriate menus of the software programs, to
test each of the hypotheses using the relevant
statistical test.
• The results of these tests will determine whether
or not the hypothesis is substantiated.
• Once the data are ready for analysis that is, out-
of -range /missing responses, etc, are cleared up,
and the goodness of the measures is established,
the researcher is ready to test the hypothesis
already developed for the study.

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Checking the Reliability of Measures: Cronbache's
Alpha
• The closer the reliability coefficient gets to 1.0, the
better.
• In general, reliabilities less than .60 are considered
to be poor, those in the .70, range , acceptable,
and those over .80 good.
• It is important to note that all negatively worded
items in the questionnaires should first be
reversed before the items are submitted for
reliability test.
• Unless all the items measuring a variable are in
the same direction, the reliabilities obtained will
be incorrect.
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• Reliability Analysis
• From the menu, choose
• Analyse
Scale
Reliability analysis
• Select the variables constituting the scale
• Choose model alpha.

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Obtaining Descriptive Statistics: Frequency Distributions
• Frequency distribution was obtained for all the
personal data or classification variables.
• Frequencies
• From the menus, choose
• Analyze
– Descriptive statistics
– Frequencies …..
(Select the relevant variable)
• Choose needed:
– Statistics
– Charts….
• Format (for the order in which the results are to be
displayed)

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• The frequencies can also be visually displayed
as bar charts, histograms, or pie charts by
clicking on statistics in the menu then
summarize, then Frequencies, and charts in
the frequencies dialog box and then selecting
the needed chart.

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Descriptive Statistics: Measures of Central Tendencies
and Dispersion
• Descriptive statistics such as maximum, minimum,
means, slandered deviations, and variance were
obtained for the interval –scaled independent and
dependent variables.
• From the Menus, choose
• Analyze
– Descriptive statistics
• Descriptive…….
• (Select the variables)
• Options ………….
• (Choose the relevant statistics needed)
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Inferential Statistics: Pearson Correlation
• The Pearson correlation coefficients are
appropriate for interval –and –ratio scaled
variables, and the spearman rank or the Kendall’s
Tau coefficients are appropriate when variables
are measured on an ordinal scale.
• Any Bivariate correlation can be obtained by
clicking the relevant menu, identifying the
variables, and seeking the appropriate
parametric or nonparametric statistics.
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• Pearson correlation matrix
• From the menus, choose:
• Analyze
– Correlate
– Bivariate ……
• Option………
• Select:
• Type of correlation coefficient: select relevant
one. For example Pearson, Kendall’s, Tau,
Spearman.
• Test of sigiinificance –two tailed, one –tailed.

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• T-Test for Difference between Two Groups
• (Independent Sample Test)
• Choose
• Analyse
– Compare means
– Independent- samples t- test
• Select a single grouping variable and click
Define groups to specify the two codes to be
compared.
• Options…………
• (Specify confidence level required
- .05, .01, etc.)
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• ANOVA
• Choose
• Analyze
• Compare means
• One-way ANOVA
• (Select the dependent variable‘s and
one independent factor variable)
•
• For post hoc test to determine in which of the
multiple groups the differences lie click on:
• Post hoc ………
• (Select from among the many tests such as
Bobferoni, scheffe, Tukey, Duncan, as appropriate)
•

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• Chi-Square Test
• Choose:
• Analyze
• Descriptive Statistics
• Crosstabs………..
• (Enter variables in the rows
and columns boxes)
• Statistics ……………..
• Select Chi-
Square

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• Multiple Regression Analysis
• Choose
• Analyze
• Regression
• Linear …………
• (Enter dependent and
independent variables)

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