INTRODUCTION HUMAN ANATOMY

for

PC-I STUDENTS

By: Rebuma Sorsa

Email: rebuma.sorsa@ju.edu.et

February, 2024
Jimma, Ethiopia

03/14/2024
By: Rebuma S 1
Out line
¨ Definition of Anatomy
¨ Historical background
¨ Subdivisions of Anatomy
¨ Approaches to studying Anatomy
¨ Levels of structural complexity of the body
¨ The Language of Anatomy
¨ Body Planes and Sections
¨ Body Cavities
¨ Regions of the body
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Objectives
At end of this session you will be able to:
¨ Define Anatomy
¨ Describe languages of anatomy
¨ Discuss approaches of studying anatomy
¨ Investigate the body cavity and membranes
¨ Demonstrate body planes and regions

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Definition

¨ Old defn: the word “Anatomy” - Greek term Anatome.

o Ana = apart or up
o Tome = cutting

¨ To cut apart, divide or dissect (derived from the Latin term

dissecare.
¨ Present defn: the study of normal structures of the body and
their relationships.

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History

Anatomy
¨ The study of the structure of the body
¨ one of the oldest basic medical sciences
¨ it was first studied formally in Egypt (approximately
500 B.C.)

¨ The earliest descriptions of anatomy were written on

papyruses b/n 3000 & 2500 B.C.

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 History………..cont’d
¨ Later the Human Anatomy was taught in Greece.
¨ Hippocrates (460-377 B.C) considered as father of the
medicine and a founder of the science of anatomy.
¨ Aristotle (384-322 B.C) First person to use the term
“Anatome”
¨ Galen a philosopher born in 130 B.C used dissection of
human and animal bodies.

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History………..cont’d
Andreas Vesalius (1514 - 1564 A.D)
¨ marked new era in the history of medicine.
¨ the study of anatomy became an objective discipline based on direct
observations as well as scientific principles.
¨ recognized anatomy as the firm foundation of the whole art of medicine.

Leonardo da Vinci and Michel Angelo (1514-1564)

¨ Accurately display, portray & describe the parts of the human body and
thus to revise, amend and correct many galenic concepts.

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History………..cont’d
Hieronymus Fabricius (1537-1619 A.D)
¨ one of the teachers of William Harvey, discovered valves in the
veins which led Harvey to the discovery of blood circulation.

William Harvey (1578-1657)

¨ English functional morphologist
¨ To discovery of the circulation of blood.
¨ The movements of the heart & the circulation of blood in animals,
represents a milestone in the history of medicine.

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Divisions of anatomy

General anatomy
¨ Study of gross and macroscopic structures as well as of the
composition of the body

Special anatomy
¨ Certain definitive organs or groups of organs involved in the
performance of a special function.

Gross (macroscopic) anatomy

¨ Human body/its parts without microscope
¨ It is studied by means of dissection of the body.
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Divisions of anatomy………cont’d
Microscopic anatomy
¨ Study of cells, tissues and organs by the help of a light
microscope.
Regional or Topographic anatomy
¨ Anatomy of certain related parts or divisions of body.
Systemic anatomy
¨ Anatomy of the systems of the body.
Descriptive anatomy
¨ Deals with the description of the physical structure of
man.

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Divisions of anatomy………cont’d
Comparative anatomy
¨ Comparative study of the structures with regard to
homologous organs or parts.
Applied anatomy
¨ Practical application of anatomical knowledge to the
diagnosis and treatment of diseases.
Ultrastructural anatomy
¨ Ultramicroscopic study of structures too small to be
seen with a light microscope.

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Divisions of anatomy………cont’d
Developmental anatomy
¨ Structural changes of an individual from fertilization to
adulthood.
Embryology
Fetology
Postnatal development

Pathological anatomy
¨ Gross and microscopic study of organs and tissues
removed for biopsy or during postmortem exam.
¨ Study of structural changes
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Other fields of Anatomy
Surgical anatomy
o is the study of anatomy in connection with surgical operations &
surgical procedures (e.g. anatomy of surgical incisions, anatomy
of surgical exposures..)
¨ Radiological anatomy
o is the study of anatomy using radiological techniques e.g. X-rays,
CT scan, ultrasound & MRI to demonstrate the bones or some
internal organs as the heart, lungs, kidneys, stomach & intestine.
¨ Physiological (functional) anatomy: studied in r/n to function.

By: Rebuma S 13
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 Approaches to study Anatomy
¨ Anatomy is the setting (structure) in which the events
(functions) of life occur.
¨ Although the primary concern of anatomy is structure,
true understanding results when structure & function
are considered together.
¨ Modern anatomy is functional anatomy.
¨ Observation & visualization are the primary techniques
a student should use to learn anatomy.
An in-depth understanding of anatomy is fundamental to the practice of clinical medicine.

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Approaches…………..……..cont’d
¨ The three main approaches to study anatomy are
systemic, regional & clinical (applied).
¨ Systemic anatomy about 11 specific systems are
functioning in the human body.
1. Integumentary System
2. Skeletal System
3. Muscular System
4. Respiratory System
5. Digestive System
6. Urinary System
7. Nervous System
8. Reproductive System
9. Endocrine System
10. Cardiovascular System
11. Lymphatic And Immune System

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Regional Anatomy
¨ Deals several systems located in specific region of the
body six regions.
o limbs (upper and lower)
o Back
o Thorax
o Abdomen
o pelvis and perineum
o head and neck
¨ Used mostly in DR & useful for physicians and
surgeons.

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Clinical (Applied) Anatomy

¨ emphasizes aspects of bodily structure & function

important in the practice of medicine
¨ stresses clinical application important in solving
clinical problems
¨ Practical application of anatomical knowledge to the
diagnosis & treatment of disease

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 Levels of structural complexity of the body

Chemical level
¨ includes all atoms and molecules essential for maintaining life.
Major atoms:- C,H,O,N, Ca, K & Na
Molecules:- Proteins, Carbohydrates, Fats & Vitamins.
Cellular level
 Cells are the basic structural & functional unit of life.
 Cell has four principal parts.

1. Plasma(Cell) membrane
 Outer limiting membrane separating the cell’s internal
components from the extracellular
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Levels of…………cont’d

2. Cytosol
 Thick semifluid portion of the cytoplasm.
 Cytoplasm refers to all cellular contents b/n the plasma
membrane & the nucleus.
 Contains many soluble proteins & enzymes, nutrients, ions
and other small molecules.
 Organelles and inclusions are suspended in it.

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Levels of…………cont’d
3. Organelles
 Highly organized structures with characteristic shapes that are
specialized for specific cellular activities.

4. Inclusions
 Temporary structures that contain secretions & storage products
of the cell.

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Levels of…………cont’d

Tissue: groups of similar cells and substance surrounding them that

work together to perform a particular function.
There are four basic type of tissues in body.
I. Epithelial tissue
II. Muscle tissue
III. Connective tissue
IV. Nervous tissue

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Levels of…………cont’d
Organ: are composed of two or more different tissues that have
specific functions & usually have recognizable shape.
System: consists of several related organs have a common function.
E.g. digestive system:- breakdown of food & absorption
Organismic: All parts of the body functioning with one another
comprise the total organism.

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 Anatomical position
¨ The standard reference position of the body used to describe the
position & relations of various anatomical structures.
¨ All descriptions in human anatomy are expressed in relation to
the anatomical position.
¨ By using this any part of the body can be related to any other
part.
 Stand erect, Eyes looking forward to the horizon, Arms by
the sides, Palms directed forward, Lower limbs together with
feet directed anteriorly, the toes directed anteriorly.

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Body planes and sections
There are 3 body planes which includes:
A. Vertical plane
 Sagittal
 Frontal/Coronal

B. Horizontal/Transverse
 The vertical and horizontal planes are ┴ to each other

C. Oblique

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Sagittal planes

¨ Directed from front to back(Antero-posterior)

¨ Divide the body in to right and left parts.
¨ Parallel to sagittal suture of the skull.

A. Median or mid-sagittal or Symmetry: Equal Rt

and Lt part.
B. Parasagittal: Divides body or organs into Rt and
Lt unequal parts.

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Coronal(Frontal) plane

¨ It divides the body longitudinally into anterior &

posterior parts.
¨ Situated in the direction of the coronal suture of the
skull.
Horizontal plane
¨ a transverse plane which runs horizontally at a right
angle to the vertical plane.
¨ It divides the body into upper & lower parts.
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 Oblique Plane
¨ Passes through the body at an angle b/n transverse,
sagittal or coronal plane.

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Slices of the body along this planes

 Sagittal section

 Median section

 Frontal or coronal section

 Horizontal, transverse or cross section

 Oblique section

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 Axes of Movements

¨ Movements of the body are based on three main axes,

which are perpendicular to each other.
¨ These axes includes:

1. Longitudinal or vertical axis

2. Sagittal axis
3. Transverse or horizontal axis

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 Longitudinal or vertical axis

¨ Runs from the center of the head to the sole of the foot
in longitudinal direction.
¨ Perpendicular to the floor Medial (internal) rotation
movements and Lateral (external) rotation.
¨ Supination
¨ Pronation

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Sagittal Axis

¨ Runs from anterior to posterior aspect of the body or

vice versa.
¨ Parallel to the floor
¨ Movements Abduction or Adduction

Transverse or Horizontal Axis

¨ Runs from right to left or from left to right.
¨ Parallel to the floor movements. Flexion or Extension
¨ Circumduction?? Takes place in all three planes
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Anatomical terms
Anatomical terms are mainly relative types
☞Most of these terms are derived from either Latin or Greek
☞Greek origin e.g. arthros=joint, myo=muscle, neuro=nerve
☞Latin origin e.g. caput=head, caudal=tail etc.
☞Terms are divided into:-
 term of position
 term of movement

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 Terms of relationship

¨ Anterior & Posterior

o Anterior: a position on the front of the body or nearer to it.
Posterior: a position on the back of the body or nearer to it.

¨ Medial, Lateral & Intermediate

o Medial nearer to the median plane Lateral away form the median
plane intermediate: a position b/n medial point & lateral point

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Terms of r/n ship or position

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Terms of r/n ship or position

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Terms of movements

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Terms of movements

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Special movements

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Special movements…….cont’d

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 Anatomical variations
¨ Human diversity is expressed in anatomical variations books
describe the most common patterns.
¨ However, occasionally a particular structure demonstrates so much
variation within the normal range Physical, sexual, racial, genetic.
¨ A wide variation is found in the size, shape & form of attachments
of muscles, bones & patterns of branching of veins, arteries &
nerves.
¨ Individual variation must be considered in physical examination,
diagnosis & treatment.

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Body Cavities

¨ Internal compartments of hollow spaces called body

cavities
¨ Cavities protect internal organs, hold them in place,
and allow them to change size and shape.
¨ All the internal organs found within these cavities are
called viscera.

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 Body cavities……………cont’d
¨ Two main categories of body cavity are:
o Dorsal body cavities (cranial cavity & vertebral
canal)
o Ventral body cavities

¨ The ventral body cavity (coelom) is divided by the

diaphragm muscle into 2 parts
1. A superior: thoracic cavity
2. inferior: abdominopelvic cavity (peritonial cavity)
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 Thoracic cavity

Contains the
¨ pleural cavity (left and right, divided by the mediastinum)
o encloses: the lungs
o the membranes: visceral and parietal pleura

¨ pericardial cavity
o encloses: the heart
o The membranes: visceral and parietal pericardium

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Other body cavities

In addition to the large closed body cavities, there are also

many smaller body cavities
– Oral and digestive cavities
– Nasal cavities
– Orbital cavities
– Middle ear cavities
– Synovial cavities

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Body membranes
¨ flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover or line the body or
a parts of the body.
A. Mucous membrane (Mucosa)-lines a body cavity that
opens directly to the outside (digestive, respiratory
etc.)
Functions:
Protection- prevent leakage and is hard for microbes
to penetrate
Secrete mucus, which keeps the membrane moist and
provides lubrication
Cells secretes digestive enzymes and are the site of
absorption of digested micronutrients.
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 B. Serous membranes (serosa)
¨ lines a body cavity that does not open directly to the
outside and covers organs in the cavity.
¨ Cover both the walls of internal cavities (parietal
layer) and the visceral organs (visceral layer), and
b/n the two layers is the cavity.
¨ Serous membrane secrete a watery lubricant in to the
cavity that reduces friction.

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Serous membranes include:
1. Pleura is the serous membrane enclosing the lung
a. Parietal pleura lines wall of the cavity
b. Visceral pleura covers organs surface
2. Peritoneum is the serous membrane of the
abdominal cavity
a. Parietal peritoneum lines the abdominal wall
internally
b. Visceral peritoneum covers abdominal organs
3. Pericardium is the membrane that covers the heart.
a. Parietal pericardium
b. visceral pericardium

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• Specific serous membranes are named for the cavity
in which they are found
– Parietal and visceral pericardium surrounds the
heart
– Parietal and visceral pleura surrounds the lungs
– Parietal and visceral peritoneum covers the
abdominal cavity

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 Serous membrane relationship: model

¨ A serous membrane is double

layered membrane separated by
fluid.
¨ Although there is a potential
space in actuality, the
membranes lie close to one
another

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Fig. 1-10b, p. 21
C. Synovial membranes :
<> Line the cavities of freely movable joints. They
secrete synovial fluid which lubricates the joint and
nourished the cartilage.
D. Cutaneous membrane:
<> outer limiting membrane of the body, which is the skin.

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Subdivisions of abdominal cavity: regions
¨ Clinicians subdivide abdominal cavity into 9 regions to
locate abdominal organs or pain sites.
¨ Delineated by 4 planes
Two horizontal
¨Subcostal plane: passing through inferior border of
10th costal cartilage
¨Trans-tubercular plane: passing through iliac tubercles
and body of L5 vertebra.
Two vertical
¨Mid-clavicular planes: passing from midpoints of
clavicles to mid inguinal points.

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Subdivisions of abdominal cavity: quadrants

For general clinical descriptions, clinicians use 4 quadrants

defined by 2 planes.
 Trans-umbilical plane: passing through umbilicus and disc
between L3 and L4 vertebrae
 Median plane: longitudinal plane dividing the body into right
and left halves

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RUQ
- Liver: right lobe
• - Gallbladder
• - pylorus-Stomach
• - Duodenum: parts 123
• - Head of Pancreas
• - Right suprarenal gland
• -Right kidney
• -Right colic (hepatic) flexure
• - Ascending colon: sup part
• - Transverse colon: right half
RLQ
• - Caecum
• - Vermiform appendix
• -Most of ileum
• - As-colon: inf-part
• - Rt ovary
• -Rt un tube
• - Rt Spermatic.c: abd-part
• - Ut (if enlarged)
•03/14/2024
- Uy-bla(if very full)
LUQ
-Lever
- Spleen
-Stomach
- Jejunum & proximal ileum
- Pancreas: body & tail
- Left kidney
- Left supra renal gland
-Left colic (splenic) flexure
- Transverse colon: Left half
- Descending colon: sup part
. LLQ
- Sigmoid colon
- De-colon: inferior part
- Left ovary
- Lt uterine tube
- Lt ure: abdominal part
- -Lt spermatic.c:abd-part
- Uterus(if enlarged)
- U bladder(if very fully)
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Skeletal system

Outline of the session

¨ Functions of bone
¨ Gross structure of bone
¨ Histology of bone
¨ Growth and development of bones
¨ Cartilages
¨ Introduction to the skeleton
¨ Introduction to joints
¨ Terms of movement
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Skeletal system
¨ Includes bones, cartilages & joints
¨ Function:
Protection
Permit Movements
Storage of minerals and
fat Production of blood cells (Hematopoiesis)
Attachment of Muscles
¨ Osteology: study of the bone, its formation, form,
structure and functions

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Locomotory system

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 Skeletal………cont’d

¨ The word Skeleton comes from the Greek word meaning

Dried up Body
¨ The skeleton accounts for about 20 % of our body weight.
¨ It consists of Bones, cartilages, joints and ligaments.
¨ Bone, a living tissue, is a highly specialized, hard form of
CT that makes up most of the skeleton.
¨ It is the chief supporting tissue of the body

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Skeletal………cont’d

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Skeletal……cont’d
¨ Generally skeletal system is composed of 206 bones,
in addition; there are a variable number of accessory
bones, for instance:
Sesamoid bones
¨Usually has a shape similar to sesame seed
¨Helps tendons to glide over bony surfaces
¨Prevent excessive wear and tear
¨Alter the direction of pull of the tendons
¨Situated at the end of
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By: Rebuma 69
 Skeletal……….cont’d

Wormianor sutural bones

o Small fragments of bones between bones of the skull.
o Irregular, worm-like bones often seen along the
sutures of the cranium.
Heterotopic bones
o Abnormal calcifications in soft tissues
o Not normally present (e.g.formed in the scars)

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Classification of the bones
¨ According to there location

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Skeletal…………….cont’d

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 According to there structural appearance
According to their macroscopic and microscopic appearances
1. Compact (Dense) Bone
o Outer dense layer that looks smooth and homogenous to the
naked eye.
2. Spongy( trabecular, cancellous) Bone
o Inner layer composed of small needle like spicules of bone and
numerous opening having a spongy appearance to the naked eye.

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 According to their Microscopic Appearances

1. Non-Lamellar, Immature or Woven Bones

o Has a network of randomly oriented large collagen fibres in its
matrix.
2. Lamellar Bones
o All mature bones are Lamellar

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According to their Developmental Origin

¨ All bones derive from mesenchyme by two processes.

A. Intramembranous ossification:-mesenchymal model of bones

form during embryonic period & direct ossification of
mesenchyme begins in the fetal period membranous bones.
B. Endochondral ossification:- cartilage models of the bones
form from mesenchyme during fetal period & bone
subsequently replaces most of the cartilage. cartilagenous bones

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According to there shape
Long: are tubular e.g. humerus
Short: are cuboidal & are found only in the ankle (tarsus) &
wrist (carpus)
Flat: usually serve protective functions e.g. cranial bones
Irregular: have various shapes other than long, short, or flat.
e.g. face bones
Pneumatic: have empty space inside them e.g. frontal,
maxillary bones

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Structure of a Long Bone
They are generally longer than wide and they consist of three parts
1.Diaphysis,shaft or body:
o Forms a middle tubular part, mostly containing the medullary
or marrow cavity.
o Consist of compact bone with yellow marrow

2. Epiphysis
o Two enlarged ends with cancellous bone and red marrow.
o Forms the articular surface for the joint covered by hyaline
cartilages

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There are three types of Epiphysis
I. Pressure epiphysis
o Enlarged articular part of long bones. e.g. head of the humerus,
condyles of the femur.
II. Traction epiphysis (apophysis)
o Projections on the surfaces of bones at sites of attachments of
muscles, tendons or ligaments. E.g. tubercles of humerus,
trochanters of femur
III. Atavistic epiphysis
o Independent bones that fuse with other bones during
development. e.g. coracoid process of the scapula
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Metaphysis, epiphyseal plate, epiphyseal disc or growth center

¨ Consisting of a hyaline cartilage found between the diaphysis and

epiphysis of a growing bone.
o Longitudinal growth of the bones

¨ During growth the cartilage is converted to bone by the process of

Endochondral ossification.
o Line remaining between the two part of the bone is known as
Epiphyseal line

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¨ Along the diaphysis are nutrient foramina, small
openings into bone that allow passage of nutrient vessels
into the bone for nourishment of the living tissue.
¨ Periosteum covers bone surfaces, except at articulating
surfaces -highly vascular layer -serves as a place for
muscle-tendon attachment - responsible for appositional
bone growth.
¨ It is secured to the bone by perforating (sharpey’s) fibers
composed of bundles of collagenous fibers.
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Vasculature & Innervation of bones……..cont’d

¨ Bones are richly supplied with blood vessels.

¨ Nutrient arteries: (one or more per bone) arise as
independent branches of adjacent arteries outside the
periosteum & pass obliquely through the compact bone of
the shaft of a long bone via nutrient foramina.
¨ supply the bone marrow, spongy bone, & deeper portions
of the compact bone

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Vasculature & Innervation of Bones………….cont’d

¨ Periosteum, responsible for nourishment of most of the

compact bone.
¨ a bone from which the periosteum has been removed
dies.
Metaphysial & Epiphyseal arteries
¨ supply ends of bones & arise mainly from arteries that
supply the joints Veins accompany arteries through
nutrient foramina & some leave through foramina near
the articular ends of the bones. Lymphatic vessels are
abundant in the periosteum

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 Nerves accompany blood vessels supplying bone

¨ The periosteum is richly supplied with sensory nerves-

periosteal nerves-that carry pain fibers especially
sensitive to tearing or tension.
i.e. why bone fractures are very painful
¨ Bone is also supplied with sensory endings

e.g. vasomotor nerves cause constriction or dilation of

blood vessels, regulating blood flow through bone
marrow.
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Bone marking

¨ Bone markings appear where

 tendons, ligaments, & fascia are attached
 arteries lie adjacent to or enter bones
 in relation to the passage of a tendon (often to
direct the tendon or improve its leverage)
 to control the type of movement occurring at a
joint

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There are two categories of bone markings

¨ Projections or Processes
o Which grow out from surface of the bone
o Provides a site for the attachment of structures like
muscles
o Help in the formation of joints.

¨ Depressions or cavities
o Which are indentations

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Processes/elevations for attachment (tendons, ligaments)

¨ Epicondyle:-eminence superior to a condyle e.g.,

epicondyle of humerus
¨ Line/linea:-linear elevation e.g., soleal line of tibia
¨ Malleolus:-rounded process e.g. lateral malleolus
¨ Protuberance: projection of bone e.g. external occipital
protuberance
¨ Spine: thorn-like process e.g. the spine of the scapule

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Processes/elevations……………cont’d
¨ Spinous process:-projecting spine-like part e.g., vertebral spinous
process
¨ Trochanter:-large blunt elevation e.g. greater trochanter of femur
¨ Trochlea:-articular process that acts as a pulley e.g. trochlea of
humerus
¨ Tubercle:-small raised eminence e.g. greater tubercle of humerus T
¨ Tuberosity:-large rounded elevation e.g. ischial tuberosity
¨ Process:-prominent projection (attachment)
¨ Crest or crista: prominent ridge

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Articular Processes (of the Joints)

¨ Condyle:-large, rounded articular prominence, (e.g.

femoral condyle)
¨ Head:-rounded articular projection supported by a more
constricted portion of a bone (neck)
¨ Facet:-smooth, flat surface on a bone usually covered
with cartilage
¨ Capitulum:-small, round, articular head (e.g. capitulum
of humerus).
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Depression common on Bones
Fissure: a narrow slit like opening
Foramen: opening though a bone
Fossa, Pit or Fovea: a shallow depression in/on a bone
Meatus or Canal: an elongate foramen or tunnel like passage way
through a bone
Sinus: a depression within a bone filled with air & lined with mucous
membrane
Facets: small flattened depression
Notch or incissure: a depression in the margin of bones

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Other features of Bone
Body: main part
Neck: constriction between head & body
Margin or border: edge
Angle: bend
Ramus: branch of body
Hamulus: hook-shaped process
Cornu: horn-shaped process

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 Bone fractures
¨ A break in a bone
¨ Types of bone fractures
o Simple or closed:-break that does not penetrate the skin
o Compound or open:-broken bone penetrates through
the skin
o Partial (fissured):-the bone is incompletely broken
o Complete:-the fracture has separated the bone into two
pieces
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Bone fracture………cont’d
Capillary:- hair like crack within the bone
Comminuted:-the bone is splintered into small fragments
Spiral:-fracture line is twisted as it is broken
Greenstick:-in this incomplete break one side of bone is broken &
other side is bowed
Impacted:-one broken end of a bone is driven into the other
Transverse:-the fracture occurs across the bone at right angles to the
shaft
Oblique:-fracture occurs across the bone at an oblique angle to the long
axis of the bone
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Bone fracture………cont’d
Colles:-fracture of distal portion of radius
Potts:-fracture of either or both of distal ends of tibia & fibula at
malleoli level
Avulsion:-portion of a bone is torn off
Depressed:-the broken portion of the bone is driven inwards, as in
certain skull fractures
Displaced:-in this fracture, the bone fragments are not in anatomical
position
Non displaced:-in this fracture, the bone fragments are in anatomical
alignment
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Repair of bone fractures
¨ Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
¨ Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
¨ Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus
¨ Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch

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Joints/Articulations
Joints: place of union b/n two or more bones. Athrology: the study of
joints. Classification of Joints
1. Based on extent of movement
 Synarthroses:-immoveable
 Amphiarthroses:-slight moveable
 Diarthroses:-moveable (several types)

2. Based on type of binding tissue

 Fibrous joints
 Cartilaginous joints
 Synovial joints
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Fibrous Joints
United by fibrous tissue & barely movable
This type of joint includes varieties of:
A. Sutures:-held by strong connective tissue & common in skull
B. Syndesmoses:-bones are united by sheet of fibrous tissue
e.g. interosseus membrane

C. Gomphosis:-unique joint b/n a tooth & its socket

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 Cartilagenous joints
United by either hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage and sometimes
movable.
This joint also includes two subtypes:
1. Synchondroses:-bones united by hyaline cartilage -permit slight
bending during early life -e.g. b/n epiphyses & diaphysis.
2. Symphyses:-bones are united by fibrocartilage, strong slightly
movable -e.g. b/n vertebral bodies, pubis symphysis.

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Cartilagenous………….cont’t

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Synovial Joints
¨ Most common & important one
¨ Provide free movement in most parts
¨ Has lubricating fluid (synovial fluid) lined with synovial membrane
(capsule)
¨ Has three unique features

a. Joint cavity
b. Articular cartilage
c. Articular capsule with membrane

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Varieties of Synovial Joints
1. Plane joints:-allow gliding (sliding) movement (uniaxial joint)
e.g acromoclav. J, sternoclav J
2. Hinge joints:-permit flexion & extension only (uniaxial joint) e.g
elbow, knee, ankle
3. Condyloid joints:-allow movement in two direction (biaxial joint)
e.g TMJ, MCPJ
4. Saddle joints:-opposing surfaces of bones are like saddle (biaxial
joint) e.g. intertarsal and carpal joints
5. Ball & socket joints:-allow multidirectional movement (multiaxial
joint) shoulder & hip J.
6. Pivot joints:- allow rotation (uniaxial joint) e.g. atlanto-axial J,
superiorradioulanar J.

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Joint Vasculatures
Articular arteries:-that arise from the vessels around the
joint and often anastomose to form networks. (periarticular
arterial anastomoses)
Articular veins:-are communicating veins (L. venae
comitantes) that accompany arteries and like the arteries, are
located in the joint capsule, mostly in the synovial
membrane.

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Joints innervation
¨ Joints have a rich nerve supply; the nerve endings are in the joint
capsule.
¨ Most articular nerves, are branches of nerves that supply muscles
that cross & move the joint
“Hilton’s Law states that the nerves supplying a joint also supply muscles moving
the joint or the skin covering their distal attachments.”

¨ Pain fibers are numerous in the fibrous layer & associated ligaments,
causing considerable pain when the joint is injured.
¨ Sensory nerve endings respond to the twisting & stretching

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Injuries of joints
¨ Sprains - Ligament supporting a joint are stretched or
torn
¨ Strains - Tendons or muscle fibers are stretched or torn
¨ Cartilage tear - fragmentation of the cartilaginous tissue
¨ Dislocation - bones are forced out of their normal
alignments at a joint.
¨ Bursitis/Tendonitis - inflammation caused by trauma or
more frequently overuse
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Muscular system

¨ Comprises all muscles of the body.

¨ Muscle comprises the largest group of tissues in the
body.
¨ Approximately constitutes half of the body’s weight
Skeletal muscle about 40%of body weight in men &
32% in women.

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Functions of Muscular System
¨ Movement:- all types of muscles
Movement of body parts, fluids & semisolids (blood, lymph,
food, bile, urine, semen, feces) and movement of a newborn
through birth canal)
¨ Maintaince of posture:- skeletal muscles
¨ Heat production (thermogenesis)
Generation of heat via shivering; an involuntary contraction of
skeletal muscles
¨ Stabilization of joints:- skeletal muscle
Muscles keep the tendons that cross the joint tight  maintain
the integrity of the joint.
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Functional Characteristics of Muscle Tissues

¨ Excitability or irritability
Ability to respond to a stimulus
¨ Contractility
Ability to shorten forcibly
¨ Extensibility
Muscle fibers can be stretched
¨ Elasticity
Resume its normal length (shape) after being
shortened

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Types of Muscles

Depends on the presence or absence of cross striations,

location & functions
Based on striations muscles could be:
¨Striated or Non-striated
Based on location can be classified as:
¨Skeletal, Cardiac & Smooth muscles
Based on function:
¨Voluntary VS Involuntary

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Skeletal Muscles

¨ Are attached to bones at either end or both ends.

¨ Produce active movements because they usually
have at least two attachments
a. The more fixed (that moves least)= proximal
attachment = origin of a muscle
b. The more movable (that moves most) = distal
attachment = insertion of a muscle

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Skeletal Muscles
¨ Attached to bones, cartilages, ligaments, fascia or
skin by
I.Rounded cords of fibrous tissue = tendons (transfer
force of contraction from muscles to bones)
e.g. tendon of limb muscles
II. Flat sheets of fibrous tissue
aponeurosis
e.g aponeurosis abdominal muscles
Have fleshy part = belly of a muscle
• e.g belly of biceps brachii muscle

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Fascia Associated with Muscles

¨ Constitute wrapping, packing & insulating materials of the

deep structures of the body

¨ Dense, organized connective tissue layer, devoid of fat

¨ Forms intermuscular septa & it also blends firmly with the

periosteum (bone covering)

¨ Deep fascia, contracting muscles, and venous valves work

together as a musculovenous pump to return blood to the
heart, especially in the lower limbs

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 Subserous Fascia
¨ Contains varying amounts of fatty tissue.
¨ Lies b/n internal surfaces of musculoskeletal walls
& serous membranes lining body cavities.
¨ These include: the endo-thoracic, endo-abdominal,
& endo-pelvic fascias
¨ The latter two may be referred to collectively as
extraperitoneal fascia
Retinaculum
¨ thin strong band of CT, formed by thickening of the
deep fascia, that prevents the springing of tendons
especially in the wrist & ankle region.

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 Connective Tissue Investment of Muscles

¨ Endomysium:- fine sheath of CT covering the individual

muscle fibers
¨ Perimysium:- binds groups of fibers together into
bundles called fasiculi
¨ Epimysium:- covers the entire muscle is continuous
with tendon

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Bursae (singular = bursa)
¨ closed sacs or envelopes of serous membrane
¨ delicate connective tissue membrane capable of
secreting fluid to lubricate a smooth internal
surface.
¨ collapsed or essentially empty, except for a thin
layer of lubricating fluid secreted by the membrane
¨ occur in locations subject to friction
¨ enable one structure to move more freely over
another
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Bursae (singular = bursa)………..cont’d
¨ Subcutaneous bursae:- occur in subcutaneous tissue b/n skin
& bony prominences, such as at the elbow or knee.
¨ Sub-fascial bursae:- lie beneath deep fascia
¨ Sub-tendinous bursae:- facilitate movement of tendons over
bone.
¨ Synovial tendon sheaths:- are a specialized type of elongated
bursae that wrap around tendons, usually enclosing them as
they cross osseo-fibrous tunnels that anchor the tendons in
place

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Muscle Contraction
Reflexitive contraction
¨automatic and not voluntarily controlled
E.g. respiratory movements of the diaphragm & the myotatic
reflex (e.g. knee jerk reflex)
Tonic Contraction
¨slight contraction even in relaxed state, is called muscle tone
(tonus)
¨does not produce movement or active resistance (as phasic
contraction does)
¨gives the muscle a certain firmness, assisting the stability of
joints & the maintenance of posture.
¨Muscle tone is usually absent only when unconscious (as
during deep sleep or under general anesthesia) or after nerve
lesion result in paralysis

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Phasic Contraction
There are two main types of phasic (active) muscle
contractions.
Isotonic contractions
¨the muscle changes length in relationship to the
production of movement.
Isometric contractions
¨muscle length remains the same, no movement
occurs, but the force (muscle tension) is increased
above tonic levels.
¨important in maintaining upright posture & when
muscles act as fixators or shunt muscles.

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…………….cont’d
¨ A muscle fiber is the structural unit of a muscle
¨ A motor unit, consisting of a motor neuron & the muscle
fibers it controls, is the functional unit of a muscle.
¨ A shunt muscle:- muscle whose pull is exerted along a line
that parallels the axis of the bones to which it is attached
(e.g., the brachioradialis)
¨ A spurt muscle:- whose line of pull is more oblique oriented
to the bone it moves (i.e. line of pull is less parallel to the
long axis of the bone) & capable of more rapid & effective
movement; e.g., the biceps brachii

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119
Naming of skeletal muscles
Location of the muscle e.g. Intercostal, Temporalis
Shape of the muscle e.g. Deltoid; Trapezius
Relative size of the muscle e.g. Maximus, medius, minimus
Direction of muscle fibers e.g. Rectus (straight), transverse;
oblique
Number of origins e.g. Biceps; triceps; quadriceps
Attachment (origin and insertion) e.g. Sternocleidomastoid
muscle
Action (function) of the muscle e.g. Flexor, extensor, adductor
Relative position e.g. lateral, medial, internal, & external
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 Shape of skeletal muscles
Flat:-muscles have parallel fibers often with an aponeurosis e.g. external
oblique.
Pennate:- muscles are feather-like in the arrangement of their fascicles &
may be e.g. extensor digitorum longus (unipennate), bellies of the
gastrocnemius (bipennate) & deltoid (multi-pennate)
Fusiform:-muscles are spindle shaped with a round, thick belly (or bellies) &
tapered ends e.g., biceps brachii.
Quadrate:-muscles have four sides e.g., pronator quadratus.
Circular or sphincteral:- e.g. orbicularis oris
Multi-headed or multi-bellied:-muscles have more than one head of attachment or
more than one contractile belly e. g. triceps-3 heads; digastric has two bellies
Convergent:-muscles with wide origin and narrow insertion e.g. Pectoralis major
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Next session class

¨ Circulatory System
¨ Nervous system
¨ General Embryology

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 Thank you for your attention!

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