GENERAL

CHEMISTRY
MATTER & ITS PROPERTIES
ATOMS & ATOMIC THEORY
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fuat TOPUZ
Istanbul Technical
University
Department of Chemistry
Week - 1
Important Remarks

• Course success will consist of 60% midterms and 40%

final exam.

• Students, who do not attend the midterm exams, are

not admitted to the final exam and get VF !!!

3
Multichoice exams

4
 1. Vize
2. Vize

https://libretexts.org

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_General_Chemistry_(Petrucci_et_al.) 5
Highligted
ones will
not be
taught!
6
 What is Chemistry?

Chemistry is the study of the properties and behavior of matter. 7

The Scientific Method
Louis Pasteur (1822–1895). This great
practitioner of the scientific method: (i) the
developer of the germ theory of disease, (ii)
the sterilization of milk by pasteurization,
and (iii) vaccination against rabies (TR:
Kuduz).
«The germ theory of disease is the currently
accepted scientific theory for many diseases.
It states that microorganisms known
as pathogens or "germs" can lead to disease»
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 A hypothesis is a possible explanation for an observation.

The scientific method

illustrated

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10
Matter
Matter: Anything that occupies space and has mass (e.g., an
apple, a person, a table, air, water, a computer, a paper, iron)
Atoms are the building blocks of matter.
Each element is made of a unique kind of atom.
Composition: Parts or components ex. H2O2, 5.93% H and
94.07% O by mass
Properties: Distinguishing features physical and chemical
properties
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The Three States of Matter
Compressibility of Gases

SOLID LIQUID GASE 12

Are atoms compressible?

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 Classification of Matter
The relationships among elements, compounds, and other categories
of matter;

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A substance is a form of matter that has a definite
composition and distinct properties.
Pure substances:
Elements:
Cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means.
•118 elements
•C, H, O, Au, Na etc.,

Compounds:
Two or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions.
•Water (H2O), Methane (CH4) etc., 15
16
Differences between some of the major terms we use in chemistry

A compound is a molecule made of atoms from different elements. All

compounds are molecules, but not all molecules are compounds.

Ion is an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the

loss or gain of one or more electrons.

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A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the
substances retain their distinct identities.
1. Homogenous mixture – composition of the mixture is the same throughout.

Soft drink, tea, steel, air,

salt dissolved in water

A mixture of two or more phases of a pure substance is still a pure substance

as long as the chemical composition of all phases is the same.
Homogenous mixtures are uniform in composition.
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2. Heterogeneous mixture – composition is not uniform throughout.
Clouds:
Oil in water
liquid water droplets
Cement:
in air
iron filings in sand

Any mixture, whether homogeneous or heterogeneous, can be created and

then separated by physical means into pure components without changing
the identities of the components.
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Exercises:
Identify the followings as homogeneous or heterogeneous mixture:

a)Orange juice (particles of solid (pulp) as well as liquid.)

(combination of stone, sand, or gravel bound together by asphalt cement, a
b)Asphalt product of crude oil)
c)Steel alloy
d)Salt dissolved in water
e)Salt and sugar mixture
f)Exhaust gas (contains many gases like CO2, CO and some unburnt ash.)
g)Clouds (mixture of gas, liquid.)
h)Vinegar (homogenous mixture of acetic acid and water. As the mixture created 20
has only one phase it is a solution.) Ans: Homogeneous mixtures: c, d,
21
 Types of Changes

A physical change does not alter the composition or identity of a substance.

Ex: Melting of ice,
dissolution of sugar in water

Macroscopic and
microscopic views of matter

A chemical change alters the composition or identity of the substance(s)

involved.

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 Chemical Change
Hydrogen and oxygen
become water.

Decomposition of ammonium dichromate 23

 Filtration / Physical Separation

Distillation / Physical Separation

Chromatography / Physical Separation

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The Measurement of Matter: SI Units
International System of Units (SI Units)
Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
All other SI units are derived from these 7 units.
Example: area = m2 speed = m/s density = kg/m3
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 Prefixes Used with SI Units
Facto
Prefix Symbol
r
Memorize this table

mega M 106 Conversion Examples:

kilo k 103
deci d 10-1
1 km = 103 m (k = 103)
centi c 10-2
1 nm = 10 -9
m (n = 10 -9
)
milli m 10 -3

micro µ 10 -6 1 𝜇g = 10 -6
g ( 𝜇 = 10 -6
)
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12
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• SI units may not always be preferred in daily life.
• Some common measurements and their units:
• Mass : a measure of the quantity of matter in an object .
SI unit: kg
Other units: g, ton, pound (lb), milligram (mg) etc.,

1 kg = 1000 g = 1 x 103 g, 1 ton

Mass ≠ Weight
• Volume : is length (m) cubed.
SI unit: m3
Other units: liter (L), milliliter (mL), cm3 etc.,
1 m3 = 1000 L 1 L = 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3 1mL = 1 cm3
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• Pressure : the amount of force exerted per area.
SI unit: Pascal (Pa) (1 Pa = 1kg.m.s-2)
Other units: Atmosphere (Atm), Bar, mmHg, Torr, psi, etc.,

1 Atm = 101325 Pa 1 Bar = 100000 Pa 1 Atm = 760 mmHg

1 mmHg = 1Torr 1Atm = 14.7 psi (Pounds per square inch)

• Density: the mass of an object divided by its volume.

Therefore, density and volume are inversely proportional.

SI unit: kg/m3
Other units: g/mL = g/cm3, g/L
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Temperature
• In scientific measurements, the Celsius and Kelvin scales are most often used.

• The Celsius scale is based on the properties

of water. The Fahrenheit scale is not used in
scientific measurements
• 0 C is the freezing point of water.

• 100 C is the boiling point of water.

F = 9/5(C) + 32
• The kelvin is the SI unit of temperature.
C = 5/9(F − 32)
• It is based on the properties of gases.
K = C + 273.15
• There are no negative Kelvin temperatures.

• The lowest possible temperature is called absolute zero (0 K).

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The Mole

The mole is the base unit of amount of substance in the International

System of Units (SI). It is defined as exactly 6.022×1023 elementary
entities[1] ("particles"), which may be atoms, molecules, ions, or
electrons.

NA = 6.02214199 x 1023 mol-1

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One mole of an element
The watch glasses contain one
mole of copper atoms (left) and
one mole of sulfur atoms (right).
The beaker contains one mole of
mercury atoms as liquid
mercury, and the balloon, of
which only a small portion is
visible here, contains one mole of
helium atoms in the gaseous
state. 31
Isotopes

• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different masses.

• Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons, but the same number of protons.

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33
Atomic Weight

• Because in the real world we use large amounts of atoms and

molecules, we use average masses in calculations.

• An average mass is found using all isotopes of an element

weighted by their relative abundances. This is the element’s
atomic weight.

• That is, Atomic Weight = Ʃ [(isotope mass) × (fractional natural

abundance)]. Note: the sum is for ALL isotopes of an element.
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Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two isotopes, lithium-6 (6.015) and lithium-
7 (7.016). Given that the atomic mass of lithium is 6.941, compute the natural
abundances of lithium-6 and lithium-7.

Answer: 7.5% lithium-6 and 92.5% lithium-7

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 Al: 26.98 g/mol

An aluminum sphere contains 8.55 * 1022 aluminum atoms. What

is the sphere’s radius in centimeters? The density of aluminum is
2.70 g/cm3.

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37
Combining Several Factors in a Calculation—Molar Mass, the Avogadro
Constant, Percent Abundance.

Potassium-40 is one of the few naturally occurring radioactive isotopes of

elements of low atomic number. Its percent natural abundance among K isotopes
is 0.012%. How many 40K atoms do you ingest by drinking one cup of whole
milk containing 371 mg of K?

Want atoms of 40K, need atoms of K,

Want atoms of K, need moles of K,

K
39.1
Want moles of K, need mass and M(K).
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 Convert strategy to plan
and plan into action

Convert mass of K(mg K) into moles of K (mol K) n = (371 mg K) x (10-3 g/mg)

K
mK(mg) x (1g/1000mg)  mK (g) x x (1 mol K) /
1/MK (mol/g)  nK(mol) (39.10 g K)
= 9.49 x 10-3
mol K
Convert moles of K
into atoms of K
40 atoms 40
K = (9.49 x 10 -3
mol K) x = 6.9 x 1017
(6.022 x 1023 atoms K/mol K) 40
K atoms
x (1.2 x 10 K/K)
-4 40

nK(mol) x NA  atoms K x 0.012%

 atoms 40K 39
ATOMS AND THE ATOMIC THEORY
CONTENTS
Early Chemical Discoveries and the Atomic
Theory
Electrons and Other Discoveries in Atomic
Physics
The Nuclear Atom
Chemical Elements
Atomic Mass
Introduction to the Periodic Table
The Concept of the Mole and the Avogadro
Constant
Using the Mole Concept in Calculations 40
The Atom
Atom is the basic unit of an element .
Nucleons
Subatomic particles:
- Nucleus: neutrons + protons
- Electrons
1 gram = 6.02214086 × 1023 atomic mass units (amu)
The atom is 5 × 104 Atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 1
larger than the x 10-10 m
nucleus
If the atom is an Olympic nuclear radius ~ 5 x 10-3 pm
stadium, then the nucleus = 5 x 10-15 m
is a tennis ball!!!
London Olympic Stadium 41
Protons and neutrons
 Tightly bound together to form the central portion of an atom called the
nucleus
 mass of neutron ~ mass of proton = 1.67 x 10-24 g
 proton (p) is positively charged (+1)
 neutron (n) is neutral (charge = 0)

Electrons
 Located outside the nucleus
 Move rapidly throughout a relatively large volume of space surrounding
the nucleus
 electron (e) is negatively charged (-1)
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Early Chemical Discoveries and the Atomic Theory

• Lavoisier 1774 Law of Conservation of Mass

• Proust 1799 Law of Constant Composition

• Dalton 1803-1888 Dalton’s Atomic Theory

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The total mass of substances present after a chemical reaction is the same
as the total mass of substances before the reaction
Antoine Lavoisier 1774
The total mass of matter is the
same at the end as at the beginning
of every chemical change. Thus, for
instance, if a piece of wood is burned
to ashes, the total mass remains
unchanged if gaseous reactants and
products are included.

Mass is conserved during a chemical reaction 44

Joseph Proust 1799 - Law of Constant Composition

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory

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Forces between charged matters

Effect of a magnetic field on charged particles: When charged particles

travel through a magnetic field so that their path is perpendicular to the field,
they are deflected by the field. Negatively charged particles are deflected in
one direction, and positively charged particles in the opposite direction.
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The Discovery of the Electron

By the end of the nineteenth century, scientists were convinced that

matter is made up of atoms, the permanent, supposedly indestructible
building blocks that compose everything. However, further
experiments revealed that the atom itself is composed of even
smaller, more fundamental particles.

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The Electron (Cathode Rays)
Thomson constructed a partially evacuated glass tube called a cathode
ray tube, shown in Figure. Thomson then applied a high electrical voltage
between two electrodes at either end of the tube. He found that a beam of
particles, called cathode rays, traveled from the negatively charged
electrode (which is called the cathode) to the positively charged one (which
is called the anode).

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50
Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment (Measurement of the Electron’s Charge)

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The Atom, circa 1900
Since atoms are charge-neutral, they
must contain a positive charge that
neutralizes the negative charge of the
electrons—but how do the positive
and negative charges fit together?

J. J. Thomson proposed that the negatively charged electrons were small

particles held within a positively charged sphere. (Plump-pudding model)
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Radioactivity (unstable elements)
• Radioactive elements (unstable elements) Radioactive elements are those that break
down due to instability, decaying over time through one of three types: Alpha, Beta,
and Gamma.

• Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of high-energy radiation by an atom. (the

emission of small energetic particles from the core of certain unstable atoms)

• It was first observed by Henri Becquerel.

• Marie and Pierre Curie also studied it.

• Its discovery showed that the atom had more subatomic particles and energy associated
with it. 53
Radioactivity

Three types of radiation were discovered

by Ernest Rutherford:
•  particles (positively charged)
•  particles (negatively charged, like e-)
•  rays (uncharged)

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 Discovery of the Nucleus
Material (bended around a circle) flashes with the hit of alfa particles
Radium
Pb shield
When alpha particles are sent
through a thin metal foil,
most of them go straight
through the foil because:
alpha particles are positively
charged. Most of the atom is
empty.

The size of the alpha particle, the nucleus of the helium atom 58
The a-particle experiment
 Most of the mass and all
of the positive charge is
concentrated in a small
region called the
nucleus.

 There are as many

electrons outside the
nucleus as there are
units of positive charge
on the nucleus. 59
Rutherford's atomic model:

Most of the atom’s mass and all of its positive charge are contained in a small
core called the nucleus.

Most of the volume of the atom is empty space, throughout which tiny,
negatively charged electrons are dispersed.

There are as many negatively charged electrons outside the nucleus as there
are positively charged particles (named protons) within the nucleus, so the
atom is electrically neutral.

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61
There are problems with the model!
(i) How do positively charged protons can
be found in the nucleus? Normally they
should repel each other.

(ii) Why do the mass of two H atoms are

not equal to 1 He atom even though the
proton number is the identical??? 62
Discovery of Neutrons

63
The nuclear atom
Rutherford
protons 1919

James Chadwick
neutrons 1932

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The Nuclear Atom

• Rutherford postulated a very small,

dense nucleus with the electrons
around the outside of the atom.

• Most of the volume is empty space.

• Atoms are very small; 1 – 5 Å or

100 – 500 pm.

• Other subatomic particles (protons

and neutrons) were discovered. 65
Nuclear Structure

Atomic Diameter 10-8 cm Nuclear diameter 10-13 cm

1Å

66
Symbols of Elements

Elements are represented by a one or two letter symbol. This is the symbol
for carbon.

All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, which is
called the atomic number, Z. It is written as a subscript BEFORE the
symbol.

The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the
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Atoms in the same group have the same number of outermost electrons
and hence similar pysical and chemical properties. 68
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The Elements of Life

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Types of Formulas

• Empirical formulas give the lowest whole-number ratio of

atoms of each element in a compound.

• Molecular formulas give the exact number of atoms of each

element in a compound.

• If we know the molecular formula of a compound, we can

determine its empirical formula.

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Types of Formulas

• Structural formulas show the order in which

atoms are attached. They do NOT depict the

three-dimensional shape of molecules.

• Perspective drawings also show the three-

dimensional order of the atoms in a compound.

These are also demonstrated using models.

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The “normal” lead content in human blood is about 0.40 part per million (that
is, 0.40 g of lead per million grams of blood). A value of 0.80 part per million
(ppm) is considered to be dangerous. How many grams of lead are contained
in 6.0 × 103 g of blood (the amount in an average adult) if the lead content is
0.62 ppm?

207.2 g/mol

Ans: 3.7 * 10-3 g

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Emprical formula?

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Iron: 55,845 g/mol

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