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Band Theory of Conductors , Insulators &

Semiconductors

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ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS
• In solid materials, electron energy levels form
bands of allowed energies, separated by forbidden
bands.

• Valence band = Outermost (highest) band filled

with electrons (“filled” = all states occupied).

• Conduction band = Next highest band to valence

band (empty or partly filled).

• Gap = Energy difference between valence and

3conduction bands, = width of the forbidden band.
• Electrons in a completely filled band cannot move,
since all states occupied (Pauli principle).

• Only way to move would be to “jump” into next

higher band - needs energy.

• Electrons in partly filled band can move, since

there are free states to move to.

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Classification of solids into three types, according to
their band structure Insulators, semiconductor
conductor

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Conductor (metal)
• Material capable of carrying electric current, i.e.
material which has “mobile charge carriers”. (e.g.
electrons, ions,..).
• A metal which is very good carrier of electricity is
called conductor.
• In a conductor (metal) - The valence and
conduction bands overlap, so practically the energy
gap is zero. Thus, electrons need very little energy
to stay in the conduction band, and conduct
electricity.
• Valence band only partially filled, or (if it is filled),
the
6 next allowed empty band overlaps with it.
Conductor (metal)
• If the electron to become free to conduct means, it
must be promoted into an empty available energy
state.

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Insulators
• Materials with no or very few free charge carriers
• Gap = forbidden region between highest filled band (valence band)
and lowest empty or partly filled band (conduction band) is very wide,
about 3 to 6 eV;
• In an insulator the valence band is filled with electrons, so electrons
can not move within the valence band.

• In order to produce conduction of electricity, the electrons from the

valence band must go into the conduction band. Thus, energy of more
than the energy gap must be supplied to the electrons in the valence
band, in order to transfer them into the conduction band. Because the
energy gap in insulator is large, it prevents this change in energy by the
electrons. Thus, insulators are poor conductors.
• e.g. quartz, most covalent and ionic solids, plastics, glass, wood, mica,
paper
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Insulators Practically it is impossible for an electron to jump from the
valence band to the conduction band.Hence such materials cannot
conduct and called insulators.
Such materials may conduct only at very high temperatures or if they
are subjected to high voltage. Such conduction is rare and is called
breakdown of an insulator.

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Semiconductor
• A semiconductor material is one whose electrical
properties lie in between those of insulators and
good conductors.

• In terms of energy bands, semiconductors can be

defined as those materials which have almost an
empty conduction band and almost filled valence
band with a very narrow energy gap
(0.1eV to1 eV ).

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Semiconductor
• The energy gap is very small, and very little energy is
needed to transfer electrons from the valence band into the
conduction band.

• Even the thermal energy at room temperature is enough.

• By raising the temperature, more and more electrons will

be transferred to the conduction band.

• This process results in an increase in conductivity with

increase in temperature. • Examples are: germanium and
silicon.
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 Types of Semiconductors

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 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the
semiconductor material in its extremely pure form.
• Examples of such semiconductors are: pure germanium
and silicon which have forbidden energy gaps of 0.72 eV
and 1.1 eV respectively.
• The energy gap is so small that even at ordinary room
temperature; there are many electrons which possess
sufficient energy to jump across the small energy gap
between the valence and the conduction bands.
• Alternatively, an intrinsic semiconductor may be defined
as one in which the number of conduction electrons is equal
to the number of holes.
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Extrinsic Semiconductors (“doped semiconductor”)

• semiconductor with small admixture of trivalent or

pentavalent atoms.

• Those intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable

impurity or doping agent or doping has been added in
extremely small amounts (about 1 part in 108) are called
“Extrinsic or Impurity semiconductors”.

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 TYPES OF EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
• Depending on the type of doping material used ,
extrinsic semiconductors can be subdivided into
two classes:

N-type semiconductors (donor)

P-type semiconductors (acceptor)

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N-type Extrinsic Semiconductor
• This type of semiconductor is obtained when a Pentavalent material
like antimony (Sb) is added to pure silicon crystal.
• Dopant with 5 valence electrons. 4 electrons used for covalent bonds
with surrounding Si atoms.

P-type Extrinsic Semiconductor

• This type of semiconductor is obtained when traces of a trivalent
like boron (B) are added to a pure germanium crystal.
• Dopant with 3 valence electrons (e.g. B, Al, Ga, In) • only 3 of the 4
covalent bonds filled and vacancy in the fourth covalent bond is hole.

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