CELLULAR ORGANIZATION OF BRAIN

Dr MUHAMMAD KAMRAN YOUSUF

Brain and Behavior
An analysis at the behavioral level lays the foundation for
an analysis at the neural level. Without this foundation,
there can be no meaningful contribution from the neural
level.

- Randy Gallistel
Basic Function of the Nervous System

Sensation:
• Monitors changes occurring in and
outside the body (Stimuli) & the
cells that monitor them
(Receptors).
Basic Functions of the Nervous System

Integration:
• The processing and interpretation
of sensory information to
determine the appropriate
response.
Basic Functions of the Nervous System

Reaction:
• Motor output.
• The activation of muscles or glands
(Via Neurotransmitters).
Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous
Tissue
• Overview of the NS
• PNS (Peripheral Nervous System)
• CNS (Central Nervous System)
• Neurons
• Neuroglia
• Synapse
• Some nomenclature
Functional Overview of NS
PNS
CNS = Brain and
1. Sensory or afferent division
Spinal Cord
with sensory neurons.
• Integration, Brings sensory info from PNS
processing and to CNS.
coordination of Begins at receptors
sensory data and
motor commands 2. Motor or efferent division with
• Higher functions motor neurons.
Brings motor commands to
peripheral tissue.
Ends at effector cells.
Made up of neurons
and neuroglia
The Somatic Nervous System
• Consists of neurons that communicate between the body and the
brain
• Afferent neurons
• Neurons that carry messages from sense organs to spinal cord
• Efferent neurons
• Neurons that carry messages from the spinal cord or brain to muscles and
glands
The Autonomic Nervous System
• Sympathetic division
• Most active when you are
angry, afraid, or aroused
• Fight-or-flight response
• Increases heart rate and
breathing
• Stops digestion
The Autonomic Nervous System
• Parasympathetic division
• Calms body
• Produces effects opposite to
those of the sympathetic
division
• Reduces heart rate and
breathing
• Restores digestion
STIMULUS: which promotes excitation
Receptors: which receive the stimulus
Afferent: carry inf. From the periphery to CNS
Efferent: carry inf. From CNS to periphery
Effector: organ resp. to efferent signals
Neuron: nerve cell with all its processes
Nerve fiber: name given to an axon or dendrite of neuron
Nucleus: collection of cell bodies in the CNS
Ganglion: collection of Neuron cell bodies outside the nucleus
Gray matter: consisting of neuronal cell bodies, (dendrites and
unmyelinated axons), glial cells (astrocytes and oligodendrocytes),
synapses, and capillaries.
White matter: formed by nerve cell processes
Tracts: collection of axons in CNS
Nerve: collection of axons outside the CNS
 Cellular Organization of Neural Tissue

Two cell types:

1. Neurons
1. “Excitable” cells

2. Neuroglia (mostly not excitable) Neuroglia, also called glial cell or glia, any of
several types of cell that function primarily to support neurons. provide
developmental, physiological, and metabolic support for neurons
• Schwann cells
• Satellite cells
• Astrocytes
• Oligodendrocytes
• Microglial cells
• Ependymal cells
Typical Neuron Structure
• Cell body or Soma
• Dendrites
• Axon with axon hillock
• Synaptic terminals
Neurons: The Messengers
• About 100 billion neurons (nerve cells) in the human brain
• Neurons have many of the same features as other cells
• Nucleus
• Cytoplasm
• Cell membrane
• What makes neurons unique is their shape and function
Structure of Neurons
• Dendrites
• Dendrites are appendages that receive
communications from other cells. They
resemble a tree-like structure, forming
projections that become stimulated by other
neurons and conduct the electrochemical charge
to the cell body
• Cell Body (Soma)
• Contains nucleus
• Axon
• Axon, also called nerve fibre, portion of a nerve
cell (neuron) that carries nerve impulses away
from the cell body. A neuron typically has one
axon that connects it with other neurons or with
muscle or gland cells.
• Myelin Sheath
• Insulates the axon and speeds up the neural
impulse
PARTS OF NEURON
1. SOMA
• Cell body contain nucleus
• Contain granules in its cytoplasm
2. AXON
• A single efferent process
• Uniform diameter
• Side branches are termed collateral
• Terminal branches called telodendria
3. DENDRITES
• Short afferent process
• Numerous small spines called gemmules
CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS

MARPHOLOGICAL
1. UNIPOLAR NEURON
only 1 process function as an axon
2. BIPOLAR NEURON
two process from opposite sides
one is dendrite and other is axon
3. PSEUDO-UNIPOLAR NEURON
Single process divides into two branches one
passes toward periphery and function as
dendrite other passes towards CNS as axon
4. MULTIPOLAR NEURONS
Single axon and multiple dendrites
EXAMPLES
• Mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve
• Rods and cones, neurons of olfactory epithelium
• Alpha motor neurons of spinal cord
• Dorsal root ganglion
ACCORDING TO LENGTH OF AXON
• GOLGI TYPE I NEURON
long axon
Examples: pyramidal cell of cerebral cortex
• GOLGI TYPE II NEURON
short or no axon
Examples: numerous in cerebral or cerebellar cortex
Functional Classification
• Sensory neurons
• Carry information from sensory systems to the brain
• Also referred to as afferent
• Motor neurons
• Carry information from the brain to muscles and glands
• Also referred to as efferent
• Interneurons
• Carry information between other neurons
Glial Cells
• Cells that insulate and support neurons
• Create the myelin sheath
• Remove waste products
• Provide nourishment
• Prevent harmful substances from entering the brain
NEUROGLIA

• Supporting cells of nervous system

• Form a major component of the nervous
tissue
 CLASSIFICATION OF NEUROGLIA

• Astrocytes
star shaped cells
two types:
1. Protoplasmic: thick
symmetrical process found in
grey matter

2. Fibrous: thin asymmetrical

process found in white matter
 OLIGODENDROCYTES

these cells have fewer cell processes

& they help in the formation of myelien
sheath around axon in CNS
MICROGLIA

• Flattened cell
body
• Fine short
processes
• Phagocytic in
nature
SCHWANN CELLS

• Forming sheath for axons

• Provide support to
neuron in PNS
• Repair the damaged
areas of nervous tissue
EPENDYMAL CELLS
• Lining the internal cavities, helps in the formation of CSF
Satellite cells
• Satellite glial cells are glial cells that cover
the surface of nerve cell bodies in sensory,
sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia.

• Found in PNS
The Synapse
• Synaptic space (synaptic cleft)
• Tiny gap between neurons
• Terminal button
• Enlarged area at the end of an axon
• The synapse
• Synapse, also called neuronal junction, the site of transmission of electric
nerve impulses between two nerve cells (neurons) or between a neuron
and a gland or muscle cell (effector). A synaptic connection between a
neuron and a muscle cell is called a neuromuscular junction.
Transmission Between Neurons
• Synaptic vesicles
• Sacs in terminal button that release
chemicals into synaptic space
• Neurotransmitters
• Chemicals released by synaptic
vesicles
• Receptor sites
• Location on receptor neuron for
specific neurotransmitter
Some Well-Known Neurotransmitters
• Acetylcholine (ACh)
• Released at the neuromuscular junction
• Plays an important role in arousal and attention
• Loss of ACh producing cells is linked to Alzheimer’s Disease
• Dopamine
• Affects neurons associated with voluntary movement
• Plays a role in learning, memory, and emotions
• Loss of dopamine-producing cells causes symptoms of Parkinson’s Disease
Some Well-Known Neurotransmitters
• Serotonin
• Found throughout the brain
• Appears to sets an “emotional tone”
• Low serotonin levels are implicated in depression
• Endorphins
• Reduce pain by inhibiting or “turning down” neurons that transmit pain information
Psychopharmacology
• Most psychoactive drugs (and toxins) work by blocking or enhancing synaptic
transmission
• Botulism
• Blocks release of ACh at the neuromuscular junction, causing paralysis
• “Botox” is botulism toxin used to prevent facial muscles from making wrinkles
Psychopharmacology
• Curare
• Can stun or kill prey quickly
• Blocks ACh receptors causing paralysis
• Antipsychotic medications
• Block dopamine receptors
• Reduces schizophrenic hallucinations
• Caffeine
• Increases the release of excitatory neurotransmitters by blocking the inhibitory
neurotransmitter adenosine
Psychopharmacology
• Cocaine
• Prevents reabsorption of dopamine
• Leads to heightened arousal of entire nervous system
Neural Plasticity
• The brain can be changed, both structurally and chemically, by experience
• Rat studies show that an “enriched” environment leads to larger neurons with more
connections
• Has also been shown in humans
• Recent research has uncovered evidence of neurogenesis, or the production of new
brain cells, in human brains
 Nervous System Organization
• Central nervous system (CNS)
• Consists of the brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system
• Connects the CNS to the rest of the body
• Somatic nervous system
• Autonomic nervous system
Gray & White Matter Organization

In brain stem similar to spinal

cord (nuclei around ventricles, tracts
on outside)

In cerebrum and cerebellum:

white matter covered with
layer of neural cortex (grey)
Nerve structure
•A nerve is USUALLY both sensory and motor
• Some significant exceptions in cranial nerves
•Similar to muscle terminology
• Epineurium
• Covers the nerve
• Perineurium
• Covers a fascicle
• Endoneurium
• Covers an axon
Cranial Nerves

• Twelve pairs:
• 2 attach to forebrain (Tel- &
Diencephalon)
• 10 attach to brainstem
Spinal Nerves
• Sensory and Motor (of
course)
• Through the Intervertebral
Foramina
• 31 in no
 Overview of ANS
ANS has two divisions with both
structural AND functional
differences:
1. Sympathetic- Fight or Flight
1. Thoracolumbar output
2. Heart Rate, Respiration
3. Vasoconstriction
2. Parasympathetic – Rest and
Repose
1. Craniosacral output
2. Digestion, “housekeeping”
ANS
Summary
JAZAKALLAH & THANK YOU