Elementary Natural

Science and
Technology I
ENST611
Unit 2
Dr Benedict Khoboli
LEARNING UNIT 2: Energy and Change
LEARNING OUTCOME:
Upon completion of this outcome students will be expected to
conceptualise and apply basic knowledge of energy and energy
transformation to explain phenomena and to solve problems
experienced in everyday life.
Assessment criteria:
Students will demonstrate achievement of this learning outcome
by being able to:
• Apply knowledge of the nature of heat transfer in solids, liquids
and gases to explain everyday phenomena.
• Differentiate between different phases of matter and the
transition between different phases to the change in thermal
energy.
• Distinguish between physical and chemical changes in
substances;
 LEARNING UNIT 2: Energy and Change
Assessment criteria:

Students will demonstrate achievement of this learning outcome by being

able to:

• Explain the concept of static electricity and apply it to explain natural

phenomenon such as lightning;
• Explain how a potential difference can cause current to flow through a
closed electric circuit.
• Describe the relationship between the variables potential difference,
current and resistance in parallel and series circuits.
• Predict the effect certain changes in a circuit might have on potential
difference, current and resistance in a series and parallel circuit;
• Explain and apply the basic principles of magnetism to everyday
scenarios;

• Analyse a simple electromagnet, electric motor and electric dynamo to

explain the relationship between magnetism and electricity;
 Changes in Matter - Physical
and Chemical Changes
• Change is happening all around us all of the time.
• Just as chemists have classified elements and
compounds, they have also classified types of
changes.
• Changes are classified as either physical or
chemical changes.
• Chemists learn a lot about the nature of matter by
studying the changes that matter can undergo.
• Chemists make a distinction between two different
types of changes that they study—physical
changes and chemical changes.
 Physical Changes
Some types of physical changes include:
• Changes of state (changes from a solid to a liquid
or a gas and vice versa).
• Separation of a mixture.
• Physical deformation (cutting, denting, stretching).
• Making solutions (special kinds of mixtures).

Physical changes can further be classified as

reversible or irreversible.
• The melted ice cube may be refrozen, so melting is
a reversible physical change.
• Physical changes that involve a change of state are
all reversible.
 Physical Changes

Other changes of state include

vaporization (liquid to gas),
freezing (liquid to solid), and
condensation (gas to liquid).
• Dissolving is also a reversible physical
change.
• Salt is dissolved into water: Salt is said to
have entered the aqueous state.
• Salt may be regained by boiling off the
water, leaving the salt behind.
Chemical Change
• Chemical changes occur when bonds are
broken and/or formed between molecules
or atoms.
• This means that one substance with a
certain set of properties (such as melting
point, color, taste, etc) is turned into a
different substance with different
properties.
• Chemical changes are frequently harder to
reverse than physical changes.
• One good example of a chemical change is
burning a candle.
• The act of burning paper actually results in
the formation of new chemicals (carbon
dioxide and water) from the burning of the
wax.
 Chemical Change
• We can't actually see molecules breaking
and forming bonds, although that's what
defines chemical changes.
• We have to make other observations to
indicate that a chemical change has
happened.
• Some of the evidence for chemical
change will involve the energy changes
that occur in chemical changes,
• Some evidence involves the fact that new
substances with different properties are
formed in a chemical change.
Chemical Change: Burning
natural gas
• Another example of a chemical change is what
occurs when natural gas is burned in your furnace.
• This time, on the left there is a molecule of methane,
• CH4, and two molecules of oxygen, O2;
• The right are two molecules of water, H2O, and one
molecule of carbon dioxide, CO2.
• In this case, not only has the appearance changed,
but the structure of the molecules has also changed.
• The new substances do not have the same chemical
properties as the original ones.

Therefore, this is a chemical change.

 Chemical Change
Observations that help to indicate chemical
change include:
• Temperature changes (either the temperature
increases or decreases).
• Light given off.
• Unexpected color changes (a substance with a
different color is made, rather than just mixing
the original colors together).
• Bubbles are formed (but the substance is not
boiling—you made a substance that is a gas at
the temperature of the beginning materials,
instead of a liquid).
• Different smell or taste (do not taste your
chemistry experiments, though!).
• A solid forms if two clear liquids are mixed
(look for floaties—technically called a
precipitate).
 Law of conservation of mass
The law of conservation of mass states that matter cannot be created or
destroyed in a chemical reaction.

When wood
burns, the mass of
the soot, ashes,
and gases equals
the original mass
of the charcoal and
the oxygen when it
first reacted

Burning is a chemical process. The flames are caused as a result of

a fuel undergoing combustion (burning).
 Law of conservation of mass
• If heating 10.0 grams of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
produces 4.4 g of carbon dioxide (CO2) and 5.6 g of
calcium oxide (CaO), show that these observations are
in agreement with the law of conservation of mass.

Mass of the reactants = Mass of the products

10.0g of CaCO3 = 4.4g of CO2+5.6g of CaO
10.0g of reactant = 10.0g of products

Because the mass of the reactant is equal to the mass of

the products, the observations are in agreement with the
law of conservation of mass.
 Static Electricity
• Matter is made of electrons, protons and neutrons.
• Electricity is all about the flow of electrons.
• Our daily life is full of such examples that are related to different types
of electricity.
• Static electricity refers to an imbalance between the electric charges in a
body.
• Specifically, the imbalance between the negative and the positive charges
on a body.
• The imbalance in the charge is introduced by physical means.

There are two types of charges:

1. Positive Charge is one who loosed its electrons and becomes positively
charged.
2. Negative Charge is one which gains electrons and becomes negatively
charged.
Charges which get separated in this fashion are known as static electricity.
Static Electricity
 Charge Carried by Electrons and Protons
• The charges of electrons and protons are identical in magnitude but opposite in
sign.

• All charged objects in nature are integral multiples of this basic quantity of
charge, meaning that all charges are made of combinations of a basic unit of
charge.
• Charges are formed by combinations of electrons and protons. The magnitude
of this basic charge is

|𝒒𝒆|=𝟏 . 𝟔𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟏𝟗

The symbol q is commonly used for charge and the subscript e indicates the charge of a
single electron (or proton).
• The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C). The number of protons
needed to make a charge of 1.00 C is
1 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 18
1.00 𝐶𝑥 −19
=6.25 𝑥 10 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
1.60 𝑥 10
• 1.00 C = 6.25 x 1018 protons
 Potential difference
cause current to flow
• Electrical energy is due to the electrical field
between positive and negative electric charges.
• Current electricity is the flow of electric charge
across an electrical field.
• Imagine a negatively-charged particle is pulled
away from a positively-charged particle, like
separating the North and South poles of two
magnets.
• If you were to let go of the negative particle, it
would fly back to the positive particle due to the
force of attraction between the two.
• As the negative particle is pulled away, it is
gaining potential energy (from you doing the
work).
 Potential difference
cause current to flow
• When you let go, this potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy as the negative
particle flies back.
• When the charges are separated, we say there is a
potential energy difference between them, or
simply potential difference.
• This is the basis of current electricity.
• Negatively charged electrons are removed from
atoms, the atoms being left as positive ions.
• The potential difference between the two causes
the electrons to be attracted back, producing a
flow of electric charge: current electricity.
Current
• Electric current is defined to be the rate at which charge flows.
• A large current, such as that used to start a truck engine, moves a large
amount of charge in a small time.
• Small current, such as that used to operate a hand-held calculator,
moves a small amount of charge over a long period of time.
• In equation form, electric current I is defined to be

∆𝑸 Where ΔQ is the amount of charge

𝑰=
∆𝒕 passing through a given area in
time Δt.
Current

• The SI unit for current is

the ampere (A), named for the
French physicist André-Marie
Ampère (1775–1836).
• Since I=ΔQ/Δt, we see that an
ampere is one coulomb per second:

1A = 1C/s
Example
a) What is the current involved when a truck battery sets in motion 720
C of charge in 4.00 s while starting an engine?
b) How long does it take 1.00 C of charge to flow through a handheld
calculator if a 0.300-mA current is flowing?
 Few equation
∆𝑄
• Electric current 𝐼 = ∆ 𝑡

𝑉
• Ohms Law 𝐼= →𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 ( 𝛺=𝑂h𝑚 )
𝑅
𝐿
• Resistivity 𝑅= 𝜌 is called resistivity
𝐴
It is found that the resistance R of a metal wire is directly proportional to its
length and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area A.
 DC Circuits
• We have done DC circuits in NSC
• Series connection of resisters
• Where: V = V1 + V2 + V3
• V = ITRT, V1 = I1R1, V2 = I2R2, V3 =
I3R3
• We know that in series current is the
same IT = I1 = I2 = I3
• Therefore
ITRT = ITR1 + ITR2 + ITR3
RT = R1 +R2 + R3
 Parallel
Connection
VT = V1 = V2 = V3
For parallel we have
IT = I 1 + I 2 + I 3
 Example

Suppose the voltage output of the battery in the figure is 12.0 V , and the
resistances are R1 = 1.00 Ω , R2 = 6.00 Ω , and R3 = 13.0 Ω .
(a) What is the total resistance?
(b) Find the current.
(c) Calculate the voltage drop in each resistor and show these add to
equal the voltage output of the source.
(d) Calculate the power dissipated by each resistor.
(e) Find the power output of the source and show that it equals the total
power dissipated by the resistors.
 Example

Let the voltage output of the battery and resistances in the parallel
connection in the figure below be as follows: V = 12.0 V, R1 = 1.00 Ω, R2 =
6.00 Ω, and R3 = 13.0 Ω.
a) What is the total resistance?
b) Find the total current.
c) Calculate the currents in each resistor and show these add to equal
the total current output of the source.
d) Calculate the power dissipated by each resistor.
e) Find the power output of the source and show that it equals the total
power dissipated by the resistors.
 A 9.0-V battery whose internal resistance R is
0.50 Ω is connected in the circuit shown in
figure.
(a)How much current is drawn from the battery?
(b)What is the terminal voltage of the battery?
(c) What is the current in the 6.0 Ω resistor?

We want to determine the equivalent

resistance of the circuit.

a) We note that the 8.0 Ω and 4.0 Ω

resistors are in parallel, and so have an
equivalent resistance R4,8
 Activity 1
Let R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = 125 Ω and V = 22.0 V. Determine
the current through each resistor before and after closing
the switch.
 Activity 2

What is the net resistance

of the circuit connected to
the battery in Figure
 Kirchhoff’s Rules
• Many complex circuits, such as the one in Figure
shown, cannot be analyzed with the series-parallel
techniques developed in Resistors in Series and Parallel.
• There are, however, two circuit analysis rules that can be
used to analyze any circuit, simple or complex. Y
• These rules are special cases of the laws of conservation
of charge and conservation of energy.
• The rules are known as Kirchhoff’s rules, after their
inventor Gustav Kirchhoff (1824–1887).
 Kirchhoff’s Rules

• Kirchhoff’s first rule—the junction rule. The

sum of all currents entering a junction must
equal the sum of all currents leaving the
junction.

• Kirchhoff’s second rule—the loop rule. The

algebraic sum of changes in potential around
any closed-circuit path (loop) must be zero.
 Kirchhoff’s Rules
Steps in using Kirchhoff’s Rule
• Label the currents
 You need to label I1, I2 & I3.
Each current refers to a segment between two junctions.
Choose the directions of each current using an arrow.
The directions can be chosen arbitrarily.
• Identify the unknown
You will need as many independent equations as there are unknowns.
You will note that some equations will be redundant.
You may use V = IR for each resistor which sometimes will reduce the number of
unknowns.
• Junction rule
I1 = I2 + I3
I1 + I2 = I3
 Kirchhoff’s Rules
Steps in using Kirchhoff’s Rule
• Loop rule
Identify the loops and for each loop identify the direction.
For a resistor apply Ohm’s law
 The potential difference is negative if the chosen loop direction is the same as the chosen
current direction through the resistor.
 The potential difference is positive if your chosen loop direction is opposite to the chosen
current direction.
For the battery or source
 The potential difference is positive if your loop direction is from negative terminal
toward the positive terminal.
 The potential difference is negative if the loop direction is from positive terminal toward
the negative terminal.
• Solve the problem
 Applying Kirchhoff’s Rules: Activity 1
Calculate the current in the circuit shown and show that the
sum of all the voltage changes around the circuit is zero.
Applying Kirchhoff’s Rules: Activity 2
Determine the terminal voltage of each battery
 Magnets
Laws of magnetic attraction
and repulsion
• Like magnetic poles repel
each other
• Unlike magnetic poles
attract each other
• Closer together, greater the
force
 Magnetic Fields and Forces
Magnetic lines of force
• Lines indicating magnetic field
• Direction from N to S
• Density indicates strength
Magnetic field is region where
force exists
 Magnetic Theories
Magnets can Molecular theory of magnetism
be split into
two magnets

Unmagnetized Material

Magnetized Material
 Molecular theory of magnetism
When looking at molecular structure

When unmagnetized,
they are randomly arranged
hence, fields cancel

Unmagnetized Material
Magnetized Material

When magnetized,
order,
fields combine
 Electron theory of magnetism

• Electrons spin as they orbit

(similar to earth)
• Spin produces magnetic field
• Magnetic direction depends on
direction of rotation
• Non-magnets → equal number
of electrons spinning in opposite
direction
• For magnets → more electrons
spin in the similar direction
 Current Flow
• Conventional current or simply
current, behaves as if positive
charge carriers cause current
flow.
• Conventional current flows from
the positive terminal to the
negative.
 Electromagnetism

• Movement of electric
charge induces magnetic
field
• Strength of magnetic field
increases as current
increases and vice versa