Unit 3 - NANOCHEMISTRY

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Topics to be covered
1 Introduction - Basics of Nanochemistry – Nano-technology – Nano-science –
Nano-Chemistry features.
2 Difference between Nanomaterials and Bulk Materials.

3 Properties of nanomaterials-Physical and chemical.

4 Synthesis of nanomaterials - Mechanical milling-milling, vibratory milling, or

attrition milling, Mechanochemical synthesis,
5 Laser ablation & Ion sputtering-Fabrication and its application
6 Synthesis of nanomaterials-Bottom-up approach- Physical vapor deposition
method (PVD), Chemical vapor deposition method (CVD).
7 Synthesis of nanomaterials - Top down approach-Sol gel method, Hydrothermal
method, Chemical reduction method, Solvothermal method
8 Nanophotonics-Fundamentals, Challenges, Future Prospects and Applied
Applications.
9 Quantum confined materials-Size effect, (surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-
principle, application).
 INTRODUCTION
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• The prefix (nano) in the word nanochemistry means a billionth (1 x
10-9 m).

• Atoms are very small and the diameter of a single atom can vary
from 0.1 to 0.5 nm.

• It deals with various structures of matter having dimensions of the

order of a billionth of meter.
 BASICS
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Nanoparticles
• Nanoparticles are the particles, the size of which ranges from 1-100nm.
• Generally they are obtained ascolloids.
• The colloidal particles have a tendency to remain single crystal and hence are called as
nanocrystals.
• A large percentage of atoms in nanocrystals are present on the surface Nanocrystals
possess electronic, magnetic and optical properties.
• Since the nanoparticles exhibit an electronic behavior, governed by the quantum physics,
they are also called as quantumdots.

Nanomaterials
• Nanomaterials are the materials having components with size less than 100 nm at least in
one dimension.
• Nanomaterials, in one dimension, are layers such as a thin films or surface coatings.
• Nanomaterials, in two dimensions, are tubes such as nanotubes and nanowires.
• Nanomaterials, in three dimension, are particles like precipitates, colloids and quantum
dots.
 Basics
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Nanochemistry (or) Nanoscience
Nanoscience is defined as the study of phenomena
and manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular and
macromolecular scales.
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is defined as the design,
characterization, production and applications of
structures, systems and devices by controlling size
and shape at 10-9 m scale or the single atomic level.
 Types of nanomaterials
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Nanomaterials can be categorized into four types such as:
1. Inorganic-based nanomaterials - Examples of metal-based inorganic nanomaterials
are silver (Ag), gold (Au), aluminum (Al), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc
(Zn), and lead (Pb) nanomaterials, whereas examples of metal oxide-based inorganic
nanomaterials are zinc oxide (ZnO), copper oxide (CuO), magnesium aluminum oxide
(MgAl2O4), titanium dioxide (TiO2), cerium oxide (CeO2), iron oxide (Fe2O3), silica
(SiO2), and iron oxide (Fe3O4), etc.
2. Carbon-based nanomaterials - Examples: graphene, fullerene, single-walled carbon
nanotube, multiwalled carbon nanotube, carbon fiber, an activated carbon, and carbon
black.
3. Organic-based nanomaterials - The organic-based nanomaterials are formed from
organic materials excluding carbon materials, for instance, dendrimers, cyclodextrin,
liposome, and micelle. and
4. Composite-based nanomaterials - any combination of metal-based, metal oxide-
based, carbon-based, and/or organic-based nanomaterials, and these nanomaterials
have complicated structures like a metal-organic framework.
 Difference between Nanomaterials and
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Bulk Master
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• The key difference between nanomaterials and bulk

materials is that the nanomaterials have their size in 1-
100 nm range at least in one dimension whereas the bulk
materials have their size above 100 nm in all dimensions.
• Nanomaterials and bulk materials are the two major
types of particles. They differ from each other
according to their size. Moreover, they have different
chemical and physical properties. Therefore, they have
different applications as well.
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 What are Nanomaterials?
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Nanomaterials are particles that have their size in 1-100 nm range at least in one
dimension. There are different sources of these particles.
For example, we can get these particles as engineered particles, as incidental
components and via natural sources. There are several forms of nanomaterials;
 Nanomaterials –
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They have all their dimensions in 1-100 nm scale.

• Accordingly, in zero-dimensional (0D) nanomaterials all the dimensions are

measured within the nanoscale (no dimensions are larger than 100 nm).
Most commonly, 0D nanomaterials are nanoparticles.
• In one-dimensional nanomaterials (1D), one dimension is outside the
nanoscale. This class includes nanotubes, nanorods, and nanowires.
• In two-dimensional nanomaterials (2D), two dimensions are outside the
nanoscale. This class exhibits plate-like shapes and includes graphene,
nanofilms, nanolayers, and nanocoatings.
• Three-dimensional nanomaterials (3D) are materials that are not confined
to the nanoscale in any dimension. This class can contain bulk powders,
dispersions of nanoparticles, bundles of nanowires, and nanotubes as well as
multi-nanolayers.
• Bulk nanostructures – none of the dimensions is in the nanoscale (all are
above 100 nm).
Classification of nanoscale dimensions.
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Comparison between Nanomaterials and
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Bulk Master
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What Master
are Bulk title style
Materials?
Bulk materials are solid materials that are typically found in powder,
granular, or lumpy forms. They are often handled and stored in large
quantities. Some examples of bulk materials include sand, gravel, cement,
coal, and grain.

Bulk materials can be classified into two main types:

Cohesionless, free-flowing bulk materials: These materials do not stick together and flow
easily. Examples include sand and gravel.
Cohesive bulk materials: These materials tend to stick together and can be difficult to
flow. Examples include cement and coal.
 What is the Difference Between
Nanomaterials and Bulk title
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Property Nanomaterials Bulk materials
Size At least one dimension less than 100 nm All dimensions greater than 100
nm

Surface area to volume High Low

ratio
Optical properties Can be different from bulk materials Similar to bulk materials

Electrical properties Can be different from bulk materials Similar to bulk materials

Mechanical properties Can be different from bulk materials, Similar to bulk materials
such as increased strength and hardness

Chemical properties Can be different from bulk materials, Similar to bulk materials
such as increased reactivity
 PROPERTIES OFMaster
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Optical properties: Nanomaterials can have different optical properties than bulk
materials, such as different colors, absorption spectra, and scattering properties.
This is because the size and shape of nanoparticles can affect the way they
interact with light.
Electrical properties: Nanomaterials can also have different electrical properties
than bulk materials. For example, nanoparticles can be more conductive or
semiconducting than bulk materials. This is because the surface of nanoparticles
can have different electronic properties than the interior.
Mechanical properties: Nanomaterials can also have different mechanical
properties than bulk materials, such as increased strength and hardness. This is
because the small size of nanoparticles allows them to resist deformation and
fracture.
Chemical properties: Nanomaterials can also have different chemical properties
than bulk materials. For example, nanoparticles can be more reactive than bulk
materials. This is because the high surface area to volume ratio of nanoparticles
gives them more atoms that are exposed to the environment.
 SYNTHESIS OF NANO –MATERIALS
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For the preparation of metallic nanoparticles, various methods are
used, which are classified into two types: bottom-up methods and
top-down methods, and are listed in Table.
The preparation of nanoparticles' starting material is where both
processes diverge most. While atoms or molecules are the starting
materials in bottom-up approaches, top-down methods start with bulk
material and use various physical, chemical, and mechanical processes
to reduce particle size to nanoparticles.
 Bottom-up methods and top-down
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Sr. Top down methods Bottom up methods
No. Methods Examples Methods Examples

1 Mechanical milling Ball milling Solid state methods Physical vapor deposition
Mechanochemical Chemical vapor deposition
method
2 Laser ablation Liquid state synthesis Sol gel methods
methods Chemical reduction Hydrothermal
method
Solvothermal method
3 Sputtering Gas phase methods Spray pyrolysis
Laser ablation
Flame pyrolysis
4 Biological methods Bacteria
Fungus
Yeast
Algae
Plant extract
5 Other methods Electrodeposition process
Microwave technique
Supercritical fluid precipitation
process
Ultra sound technique
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 Top down methods - Mechanical milling
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Ball milling
• Step 1: Add the material to be milled and grinding balls to a cylindrical container.
• Step 2: Rotate the container around its axis at high speed.
• Step 3: The grinding balls collide with each other and with the material, reducing its particle
size.
• Step 4: Continue milling until the desired particle size is achieved.
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Advantages
• Uses for large scale production of high purity nanoparticles with
superior physical properties such as enhanced solubility of the drug
components which are poorly water soluble in a cost-effective
manner.
• It gives rise to some new and improved properties for the
components based on their grain size and material composition.

Disadvantages
• High energy required.
• Extensive long period of milling time.
• Contamination of powder due to steel balls.
• Very sensitive microstructure can be grinded.
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Applications
• This method is preferred to blend aluminium with magnesium and
carbon in order to alter its chemical properties and combustion
behavior.
• Preparation of elemental powder of aluminium (Al) and beta-silicon
carbide (β-SiC).
• Recently the ceramic nanoparticles WC-14% magnesium oxide (MgO)
has been prepared.
• It is widely used method for mechanical alloying to produce amorphous
alloys such as metal-metal, transition metal-metalloid, and metal-
carbon systems for various purposes.
 Mechanochemical synthesis
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• It is based on repeated deformation, welding, and
fracture of the mixture of reactants.
• Different chemical modifications are produced at the
interface of nano-sized particles during the milling
process. Generally, high temperature is required to
precede chemical reactions for various purposes like to
separate reacting phases from the product phase.
• Nanoparticles can be obtained using a ball mill at low
temperatures without any use of external heating.
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• In mechanochemical method of synthesis, the starting materials (like sodium
carbonate and chloride hexahydrate for Fe 3O2 nanoparticles synthesis) are mixed
stichometrically and milled.
• The nanoparticles produced are surrounded with the byproduct material, which is
dispersed in soluble salt matrix. Afterwards the byproduct is removed by washing
with suitable solvent and subsequently the particles dried at 105 °C for 12hr.

Advantages: Simple and efficient method of nanoparticle preparation.

Disadvantages
• The microstructures (nanostructures/nanoparticles) formed are highly sensitive to
grinding condition and may get affected from unwanted contamination from milling
media and atmosphere.
• For the preparation of smaller particles (smaller than 20 nm) long term milling is
required.
•
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Applications
• Synthesis of ferric oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles.
• Widely used for nanocrystalline particle
synthesis.
• Effective method for metal nanoparticles
(usually noble metals) preparation with improved
structural and catalytic properties.
• Formation of alloying at low temperature.
• Nanomaterial preparation such as silver–
aluminum mixed oxide catalyst (Ag/Al2O3).
 Laser ablation
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Procedure of laser ablation method
• Place solid target material under a thin layer of liquid.
• Expose the target to pulsed laser irradiation.
• Laser irradiation fragments the target material into nanoparticles.
• Nanoparticles remain in liquid, forming a colloidal solution.

Key parameters:
• Laser type (e.g., Nd:YAG, Ti:Sapphire, copper vapor)
• Laser pulse duration and energy
• Liquid type and volume
• Presence or absence of surfactant
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Advantages
• Relatively simple and effective technique for the formation of large amount of
small particles (nano-size) in the form of suspension.
• Nanoparticle properties can be changed by selecting the laser parameter and
nature of liquid accordingly.
• Nanoparticles formation is possible without adding surfactant in liquid media.

Disadvantage
• Prolong time laser ablation leads to formation of high amount of nanoparticles in
the colloidal solution which block the laser path and also laser energy is get
absorbed by already formed nanoparticles instead of target surface. This overall
leads to reduction in ablation rate.
• Application
• Preparation of Al2O3 nanoparticles coating.
• Preparation of silicon nanoparticles.
 Ion sputtering
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• Ion sputtering method includes vaporization of a solid through sputtering with a
beam of inert gas ions.

• Using magnetron sputtering of metal targets.

• The nanoparticles is formed and the mass nanostructured films are deposited on
the silicon substrates.
• The entire process is performed at relatively low pressures (1 mTorr).
• Sputter deposition is done in evacuated vacuum chamber where sputtering gas is
admitted and working pressure (eg. 0.05 and 0.1 mbar) is maintained.
• A very high voltage is introduced in to the target (cathode) and free electrons
are moved in spiral path using magnetic system where they collide with
sputtering gas (argon) atoms and leads to ionization of gas.
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• This continuous process produces a glow discharge (plasma) to ignite.

• Positively charged gas ions attracted towards target where they continuously
impinge.
• Repeated occurs and approaches the surface of target with energy above the
surface binding energy, an atom can be expelled.
• Collisions occur between metal atoms and gas molecules continuously in vacuum
chamber that leads to scattering of atoms forming a diffuse cloud.
Advantages
• The composition of sputtered material is not altered and remains same as
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that of the target material.
• Method of choice for refractory metals and intermetallic compounds than
other methods like evaporation and laser ablation.
• Economical method as the sputtering equipment is less expensive than
electron-beam lithography systems.
• Less impurities are generated than those created by chemical methods.
• Alloy nanoparticles can be produced with easier control on composition than
other chemical reduction methods.
• This method is a versatile technique to synthesize ionic nanoparticles with
spacious sizes and compositions that are not obtainable in solution.
• Slow deposition of heavier ions or mass-selected ions gives unparalleled
control of different parameters such as size, composition and charges of
ions deposited onto surfaces.

Disadvantages
The nature sputtering gas (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, and Xe) can produce effect on
surface morphology, composition, texture, and the optical properties of the
nanocrystalline metal oxide films.
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Application
• Synthesis of variety of nanomaterials on surface that employed for
catalysis process, photovoltaics, magnetism, memory, cluster-surface
interactions, hydrophobic coatings, and “nanoportals” for hydrogen storage.
• For preparation of core-satellite Si–Ag and stable Pd-core MgO-shell
nanoparticles for the catalytic methanol oxidation reaction.
• Heavy and complex ions such as peptides, proteins, protein assemblies,
organometallic complexes, metal clusters, and nanoparticles can be easily
placed on the substrates without altering their basic properties.
• This method allows deposition of large molecules like large non-volatile
species that are not easy to deposit by traditional atomic and molecular
layer deposition techniques.
 Bottom up methods
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• Nanoparticle synthesis using bottom up
approach is based on formation nanoparticles
from smaller molecules like joining of atoms,
molecules or small particles.

• In this method, nanostructured building blocks

of the nanoparticles first formed and then
assembled to produce final nanoparticle.
 Solid state methods
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Physical vapor deposition method

Procedure for physical vapor deposition (PVD)

• Place the substrate in a vacuum chamber.
• Vaporize the material to be deposited using a thermal or sputtering
process.
• Condense the vaporized material on the substrate to form a thin
film or nanoparticles.
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Advantages
• Simple method for the formation of thin metal films.
Disadvantage
• Expensive method.
• Generates low volume of material.
• For successful implementation of this method, high throughput at lower
cost is necessary at the industrial level.
Application
• Preparation of thin film of tungsten selenides.
• Preparation of platinum-ruthenium (Pt–Ru) nanoparticles.
• Formation of Yttria-stabilized zirconia.
• This method is used for the formation of most efficient thin-film solar
cells, Cu (In,Ga) Se2 thin film using pulsed laser deposition (PLD). The
femtosecond (fs)-pulsed laser deposition (Fs-PLD) derived copper
indium gallium selenide (CIGS) thin films shows prominent
antireflection and excellent crystalline structure.
 Chemical vapor deposition method
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Steps involved:
• Place the substrate in a vacuum chamber.
• Introduce a precursor gas into the chamber.
• Heat the chamber to a high temperature.
• The precursor gas reacts on the substrate surface to form a thin
film of the desired material.
• Remove the substrate from the chamber.
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The deposition of target material can be

achieved by:

1) Thermally active chemical vapor deposition (TACVD)

2) Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD)] and
3) Photo initiated chemical vapor deposition (PICVD).
Advantages
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• Particle properties of nanostructures such as surface morphology and
crystal structure can be controlled.
• Chemical vapor deposition method of coating exhibits the high film
durability.
• This method is easy to scale-up.
• Produces nanoparticles of controlled surface morphology.

Disadvantages
• Chances of chemical hazards because of toxic, corrosive, and explosive
precursor gases.
• Multicomponent material deposition is difficult.
Application
• Preferred method for the preparation of gas sensitive SnO 2 nanorod
using aerosol assisted chemical vapor deposition.
• Preparation of zirconia alumina nanopowder.
• The chemical vapor deposition of large-area single-layer graphene on
metal such as Cu is performed using this technique and has wide
industrial applications.
Key differences between PVD and CVD
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Characteristic PVD CVD

Source material Solid Gas or vapor
Deposition process Physical Chemical
Deposition temperature Variable Typically high
Deposition rate Fast Slow
Coating uniformity Good Excellent
Cost Variable Typically high
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Liquid state synthesis methods

Sol gel method

Procedure of sol-gel method for nanoparticles synthesis:

• Mix a metal alkoxide (precursor) with a solvent (usually alcohol).

• Add a catalyst to initiate the reaction.
• The reaction undergoes hydrolysis and condensation, forming a sol
(colloidal suspension of nanoparticles).
• The sol is then dried to form a gel.
• The gel can be heated to form a ceramic or thin film.
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Advantages
• Simplest method.
• Particle size and morphology is possible to control by
systematic monitoring of reaction parameters.

Applications
• It is used for the synthesis of zinc peroxide (ZnO2)
nanostructures.
• Preparation of NiO2 nanoparticles.
• Thin metal films formation.
 Chemical reduction method
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1. In chemical reduction method, ionic salt is reduced in an appropriate
medium in the presence of surfactant using different reducing agents.
2. Reducing agent such as sodium borohydride is used in aqueous solution to
prepare metal nanoparticles. Formed metal nanoparticles are capped by
using trisodium citrate (TSC) or sodium lauryl sulphate (SLS).
3. Sometimes stabilizing agent is used with reducing agent. The metal
nanoparticles stability in the dispersion was monitored by the analysis of
absorbance. Reducing agents such as sodium borohydrate (NaBH 4),
glucose, ethylene glycol, ethanol, citrate of sodium, and hydrazine hydrate
etc. are used for silver nanoparticles synthesis.
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Advantages
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Simplest method used for preparation of metal
nanoparticles.
Disadvantages
Several limitations associated with reducing agents
such as toxicity, expensive, poor reducing ability,
high costs, and impurities.
Applications
Preparation of copper nanoparticle using potassium
borohydrate as a reducing agent.
 Hydrothermal method
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• Hydrothermal method is based on reaction of aqueous solution
vapors with solid material at high pressure and temperature, and
leads to deposition of small particles.
• In this method cation precipitate in polymeric hydroxide form and
further these hydroxides get dehydrated and accelerate formation
of metal oxide crystal structure.
• The second metal cation formed is beneficial for controlling
particle formation process by preventing the formation of complex
hydroxide when base is added to metal salt solution.
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Advantages
Desired size and shape nanoparticle can be prepared.
Well-crystallized powder can be formed.
Produce nanocrystal with high crystallinity.

Disadvantage
Processes are difficult to control.
Limitation of reliability and reproducibility

Applications
Suitable method for preparation of powders in the form of nanoparticle or
even in single crystal.
 Solvothermal method
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• Solvothermal method is used for the preparation of nanophase in
presence of water or other organic chemicals like methanol, ethanol
and polyol as a solvent.
• Reaction is produced in pressure vessel that allows solvent (water
and alcohol) heating above their boiling point temperature.
• The kinetics of crystallization (crystal formation) can be increased
by the one to two orders of magnitude by employing microwave
assisted reactions (microwave solvothermal).
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Advantages
• Preparation of high quality crystallized monodispersed nanocrystals.
• This method is more preferred for the preparation of narrow size
distribution of high degree of crystallization of nanocrystallites over
conventional oil bath heating.

Application
• Synthesis of silver nanoparticles.
• Rapid synthesis of nanostructures of Pt, Pd, Ag and Au using polyethylene
glycol or methanol as reducing agent under the microwave assisted
condition.
• Wide application for the preparation of high quality crystallized
monodispersed nanocrystals of nitrites, metal oxide and new
semiconductor material.
 Gas phase methods - Spray pyrolysis
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Pyrolysis procedure for nanoparticle
preparation:
• Prepare a precursor solution. This can be
done by dissolving a suitable metal salt (e.g.,
acetate, nitrate, chloride) in a solvent (e.g.,
water, ethanol).
• Atomize the precursor solution. This can be
done using a nebulizer, ultrasonic atomizer, or
other atomization technique.
• Introduce the atomized precursor solution
into a hot reactor. The reactor temperature
should be high enough to decompose the
precursor and vaporize the solvent.
• Collect the nanoparticles. This can be done
using a filter, electrostatic precipitator, or
other collection technique.
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Advantages
• Relatively simple method.
• Low cost method.
• The particle size can be
controlled and reproducible.

Applications
• Synthesis of nano-metal oxide
and mixed metal oxide.
• Synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles
by using zinc acetate as metal
precursor.
• Preparation of TiO2 nanoparticle.
 Flame pyrolysis
FormationClick to edit
of nanostructures Master
by means title
of direct spraying style
of liquid precursor into
flame is the working principle of flame pyrolysis method. This method allows
delivery of precursors, which do not have sufficiently high vapor pressure in the
form of vapor.
The gases (vapor-fed aerosol flame synthesis), liquid (flame-assisted spray
pyrolysis: FASP and flame spray pyrolysis: FSP) or solid precursor is exposed to the
flame and allowed to form nanoparticles.
 Biological method/biomimetic
method/green
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Procedure
1. Choose a biological source: This could be bacteria, fungi, plants,
or plant extracts.
2. Prepare the biological source: This may involve growing the
microorganisms, extracting the plant compounds, or purifying the
enzymes.
3. Mix the biological source with a solution of metal ions: This is
the solution that you want to synthesize nanoparticles from.
4. Incubate the mixture: This will allow the biological source to
reduce the metal ions and form nanoparticles.
5. Purify the nanoparticles: This may involve washing the
nanoparticles with water or another solvent, or using
centrifugation to separate the nanoparticles from the rest of the
mixture.
 Biological method
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Advantages of biological nanoparticle synthesis
• Cost-effective
• Eco-friendly
• Easy to scale up for large-scale production
• Does not involve the use of high pressure, energy, temperature, or toxic
chemicals

Examples of biological nanoparticle synthesis

• Bacteria: Silver nanoparticles can be synthesized using bacteria such as
Lactobacillus species and Klebsiella pneumoniae.
• Fungi: Gold nanoparticles can be synthesized using fungi such as
Fusarium oxysporum and Aspergillus fumigatus.
• Plants: Copper nanoparticles can be synthesized using plants such as
Brassica juncea and Ilex crenata.
 Biological method
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Applications of biological nanoparticles
• Medicine: Nanoparticles can be used to deliver drugs to specific cells
in the body, or to kill cancer cells.
• Agriculture: Nanoparticles can be used to improve the growth of
plants or to protect them from pests and diseases.
• Environment: Nanoparticles can be used to clean up pollution or to
generate renewable energy.
• Overall, biological nanoparticle synthesis is a simple, cost-effective,
and eco-friendly way to produce nanoparticles with a wide range of
applications.
 Electrochemical deposition
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Methods such as electrodeposition synthesis or template synthesis are used for
the production of nanomaterials.
Advantages
• Simple, fast and inexpensive method.
• Unique method that produces nanoparticles of
controlled size and morphology.
• Major advantage is that the nanoparticles get
directly attached to the substrate.
Applications
• Synthesis of nanoparticles, nanowire, and
nanorods.
• Nanomaterial production such as nanowires of
Au, Co, Ni, and Pt.
 Microwave assisted nanoparticles
preparation
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Nowadays microwave techniques are more
proffered over thermal heating for the
preparation nanoparticles.
• Microwave frequency of range 300 MHz
to 300 GHz is applied that leads to
orientation of polar molecule such as
H2O with the electric field.
• The re-orientation of dipolar molecules
with an alternating electric field causes
molecular friction and loss of energy in
the form of heat.
• Recently this technique was
successfully implemented for the
preparation of silver nanoparticles
where silver nitrate solution is
irradiated with carboxymethyl
chitosan, which acts as reducing agent
and a stabilizer.
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Advantages
• Highly effective technology for nanoparticle preparation.
• Simple, rapid volumetric heating and the consequent dramatic increase in
reaction rate.
• Homogenous heating throughout the process can speed up the reaction
rate by the orders of magnitude compared with conventional heating.
Disadvantages
Shorter crystallization time and homogeneous nucleation because of
uniform heat of microwave oven.
Applications
• Useful technique in various fields of chemistry and materials science.
• Widely used for several plant-based extracts to prepare various metal
nanoparticles.
 Ultra sound technique
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Ultrasound is a type of sound wave with a frequency higher than the range of human hearing
(above 20 kHz). Ultrasonic waves can be used to generate cavitation bubbles in liquids, which
are tiny bubbles that rapidly collapse and create high temperatures and pressures. This
process can be used to break down large particles into nanoparticles, or to promote the
formation of nanoparticles from smaller molecules.

Ultrasound-assisted synthesis of
nanomaterials has a number of
advantages over traditional
methods.

It is a relatively simple and

inexpensive process, and it can be
used to synthesize a wide variety of
nanomaterials with different
compositions and morphologies.

Additionally, ultrasound-assisted
synthesis is often more energy-
efficient and environmentally
friendly than traditional methods.
 Ultra sound technique
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Advantages
• It is an ecofriendly, green, fast and easy method of nanostructures
synthesis.
• Successfully employed for less volatile organic liquids.
• By modifying reaction conditions several forms of nanostructures of
metals, oxides, sulfides and carbides can be prepared.
• For reduction of noble metal salts during nanostructure formation
reducing agent is not required, reaction rate is generally fast and very
tiny metal particles are produced.

Disadvantage
The rate of sonochemical reduction completely depends on ultrasonic
frequency.
 Ultra sound technique
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Applications
• It is used to produce unusual
nanostructured inorganic materials
such as carbonyl compounds (Fe(CO)5,
Co(CO)3NO, Mo(CO)6, and W(CO)6).
• Nanostructure material preparation
from volatile organometallic compounds.
 Nanolithography
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Nanolithography is a process used to create
structures on the nanometer scale. It is used in
a variety of industries, including semiconductor
manufacturing, MEMS/NEMS devices, and drug
delivery.
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Procedure:
• A photoresist is applied to a substrate.
• A mask is placed over the photoresist and exposed to light or
electrons.
• The photoresist is developed, removing the exposed areas.
• The substrate is etched, transferring the pattern from the
photoresist to the substrate.
• The remaining photoresist is removed.
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Optical beam lithography:
Optical beam lithography uses light to expose the
photoresist. The wavelength of the light determines the
minimum feature size that can be created.
Electron beam lithography:
Electron beam lithography uses a focused beam of
electrons to expose the photoresist. This technique can
create smaller features than optical beam lithography, but
it is slower and more expensive.
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Example:
• To create a transistor, the following steps would be taken:
• A photoresist is applied to a silicon wafer.
• A mask with the pattern of the transistor is placed over the
photoresist and exposed to UV light.
• The photoresist is developed, removing the exposed areas.
• The silicon wafer is etched, transferring the pattern of the transistor
to the silicon.
• The remaining photoresist is removed.

Nanolithography is a powerful tool that can be used to create a wide variety

of nanostructures. It is essential for the manufacturing of many modern
devices, including smartphones, computers, and medical devices.
 What is Nanophotonics?
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Nanophotonics is the study of the interaction of light with matter
at the nanoscale, which is typically defined as lengths less than
100 nanometers (nm). At this scale, the behavior of light is
significantly different from its behavior at the macroscale, due to
quantum effects and the spatial confinement of light.
 Nanophotonics
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Fundamentals of nanophotonics
Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy that is emitted or absorbed
by matter. It consists of photons, which are massless particles of light.
Evanescent waves are a special type of electromagnetic wave that decays
exponentially with distance from its source.
Evanescent waves are important in nanophotonics because they can be used
to interact with matter at the nanoscale. For example, evanescent waves
can be used to excite surface plasmons in metallic nanoparticles.
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Challenges in nanophotonics
One of the main challenges in nanophotonics is the fabrication of
nanostructures with the desired optical properties. This can be
difficult because the tolerances for nanoscale structures are
extremely small. Another challenge is the integration of nanophotonic
devices into existing optical systems. This can be difficult because
nanophotonic devices often operate at a different wavelength range
than traditional optical components.
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Future prospects of nanophotonics

Nanophotonic devices have the potential to revolutionize a wide range of

industries, including telecommunications, computing, and healthcare.

For example,
• Nanophotonic devices could be used to develop new types of optical
communication systems that are faster and more efficient than
current systems.

• Nanophotonic devices could also be used to develop new types of

optical computing devices that are smaller and more powerful than
current devices. Finally, nanophotonic devices could be used to
develop new types of medical devices for imaging, diagnostics, and
therapy.
 Key applications of nanophotonics
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• Which include sensing, with point-of-care medical diagnostics being an area of
particular growth, display technologies and optoelectronics or photovoltaic devices.
As well as manufactured devices,
• there are examples of nanophotonics in the natural world, including
butterfly wings and peacock features that are examples of photonic crystals
containing nanoparticle assemblies.
 Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR)
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One important property of quantum confined materials is
surface plasmon resonance (SPR). SPR is a phenomenon that
occurs when light interacts with the collective oscillations of
free electrons on the surface of a metal. SPR is highly
sensitive to the size, shape, and composition of the metal
nanoparticles, and it can be used to detect and monitor a wide
range of molecules and biological systems.
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Applications
• Quantum confined materials and SPR have a wide range of potential
applications in a variety of fields, including:
• Electronics: Quantum confined materials can be used to create new
types of electronic devices, such as transistors, solar cells, and
light-emitting diodes.
• Photonics: Quantum confined materials can be used to develop new
types of optical devices, such as lasers and waveguides.
• Biomedicine: SPR can be used to develop new types of biosensors to
detect and monitor diseases.
• Food safety: SPR can be used to develop new methods to detect
and monitor foodborne pathogens.
• Environmental monitoring: SPR can be used to develop new methods
to detect and monitor environmental pollutants.
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• Thankyou