Pavement Design

Prepared by:
Engr. Harold Loyd Ilustrisimo
Instructor I
TE 411 - Pavement Design and Testing
INTRODUCTION
A highway pavement is composed of a system of overlaid
strata of chosen processed materials that is positioned on
the in-situ soil, termed the subgrade. Its basic requirement
is the provision of a uniform skid-resistant running surface
with adequate life and requiring minimum maintenance.
The chief structural purpose of the pavement is the support
of vehicle wheel loads applied to the carriageway and the
distribution of them to the subgrade immediately
underneath. If the road is in cut, the subgrade will consist
of the in-situ soil. If it is constructed on fill, the top layers of
the embankment structure are collectively termed the
subgrade.
Functions of the Pavement
- Reduce and distribute the traffic loading so as
not to damage the subgrade
– Provide vehicle access between two points
under all-weather conditions
– Provide safe, smooth and comfortable ride to
road users without undue delays and excessive
wear & tear
– Meet environmental and aesthetics requirement
– Limited noise and air pollution
– Reasonable economy
The major variables in the design of a
highway pavement are:
The thickness of each layer in the pavement
The material contained within each layer of the
pavement
The type of vehicles in the traffic stream
The volume of traffic predicted to use the highway over
its design life
The strength of the underlying subgrade soil.
TRAFFIC ESTIMATION
 Predictions of traffic are made for some convenient period of time
referred to as the traffic analysis period.
 Traffic analysis period is usually 20 years.
 Traffic analysis period used the total equivalent 80KN. Single axle
load application is the total traffic that pavement can be expected to
carry.
 Traffic must be distributed by direction and by lanes for design
purposes.
 Directional distribution is usually made by assigning 50 % of the
traffic to each direction unless special conditions warrant some
other distribution.
 The loads imposed by private cars to not contribute significantly to
the structural damage to road pavements caused by traffic.
 For purposes of structural design therefore, only the numbers of
commercial vehicles and their axle loading are considered.
EQUIVALENT AXLE
LOAD CONCEPT
A. Damaging Effect Method

 In order to express the damaging effect of traffic,

the equivalent axle load concept has been
developed. By means of this concept on axle
loading can express the damage caused by a
certain number of load repetition of a given axle
load in a number of load repetitions of a
standard axle load (80Kn) resulting in some
amount of damage in the pavement.
 The pavement is designed to carry a
large amount of traffic and the number of
traffic loads that can be taken depends on
the magnitude of the stresses in the
pavement

 When high stresses occur, the allowable

number will be low while this number will
be high if the stress level due to the traffic
is low. This phenomenon is known as
Fatigue.
 The concept of the equivalent axle load can
mathematically expressed by means of damaging
power of a given axle factor of a standard axle:

where:
F = ( Li / Lst)n

F = equivalency factor for axle load

Li = given axle load
 Lst = standard axle load (80Kn)
 n = damage exponent
 This means that the damaging effect of the axle
load (Li) When compared to the damaging
effect of the 80Kn standard axle load depends
on the magnitude of the induced stresses and
the slope of the fatigue relation

 For asphalt mixtures, the value of (n) damage

exponent takes the value somewhere between
3 and 6 depending on the composition of the
mixture and the loading time and temperature
conditions; normally a value of 4 is adopted.
Other values of n (damaging exponent)

 Cement concrete = 10 – 12
 Cement treated = 7 - 9
Load Equivalence of Traffic
The equivalent traffic can be determined by multiplying the
number of axle loads in each group (tj) of the entire load
spectrum by the relevant equivalency factor.

E = (Σ tj) (Fj)

Fj = equivalency factor for axle load

tj = number of axles in the jth local
E = equivalent daily traffic (equivalent 80kn
single axle load)
Design traffic load = ( E ) (365) (number of
design years)
Single Axle Load Single Axle Single Axle Load Single Axle
(P) Equivalency (P) Equivalency
Factor, Fs Factor, Fs
<15 0 115-124 5.4
15-24 0.004 125-134 7.6
25-34 0.019 135-144 9.4
35-44 0.061 145-154 12
45-54 0.15 155-164 16
55-64 0.32 165-174 20
65-74 0.59 175-184 26
75-84 1 185-194 32
85-94 1.6 195-204 39
95-104 2.4 >205 50
105-114 3.6
 Consider the application of the fourth power law to the delivery
truck. Assume that the steering and rear axles on this vehicle have
weights of 31kn (7,000lb) and 53kn (12,000lb) respectively. The
damage caused by this vehicle in terms of ESAL is computed as
follows:

Total damage = 0.215

 Thus, if the delivery truck passed over the pavement five
times, it would do approximately the same damage as
the passage of a single axle load to 80kn (18,000lb).

 Next, consider fully loaded moving van. Here, the

steering axle is loaded to 53kn (12,000lb) and each
tandem axle group is loaded to 150kn (34,000lb).
Tandem axle groups considered together because they
act as a unit. A tandem axle group to 147kn(33,000lb)
causes the same damages as a single axle loaded to
80kn (18,000lb) therefore 147kn is the divisor when
tandem axles are considered.
 If the damage cause by this vehicle is compared to the small delivery van. It can be seen that the moving van causes more than ten times the
damage of the small delivery truck.

Total damage = 2.36

B. Using the Japan Road
Association 5ton ESAL
(1 ton = 1000kg)
A = (Pi/5)
Ns = (Σni) (α1)
N = (Ns) (365) (Design Years)(a)

Where:
A = damage factor by wheel load to
pavement
Ns = total no. of wheel load passes over the
measured point converted to the
number of 5ton wheel load application
(wheel/day/direction)
a = traffic growth rate
ni = measured number of wheel load passes
for Pi
C. AASHTO Traffic Analysis
 Design Equivalent Single Axle Load - the number of
equivalent 80kn (8.165ton or 18kips) single axle load application
contributed by one passage of an axle/vehicle.
DTL = W18 =(Design ESAL) (DD) (LD)
where:
DTL = design traffic load in the design lane
Design ESAL = ESAL (365) (TGF)
= (ADT truck) (Truck Factor)
= (ADT bus) (Truck Factor)
TGF = Traffic Growth Factor, Vt = Pi (1+i) n
DD = directional distribution factor
LD = lane distribution factor
= 100% (for 1lane in equal direction)
= 80 – 100% (for 2lanes in equal direction)
= 60 – 80% (for 3lanes in equal direction)
= 50 – 75% (for 4lanes in equal direction)
Sample Problem: (Using 80kn Equivalent
Single Load Factor)
Given:
Design years for 2 direction of road = 15
years
Number of lanes = 3
lanes
Wheel Load (kn) Ave. Daily Equivalent Load % in total
Traffic Factors traffic
volume
45 2500 0.15 25

20 2500 0.0044 16

150 2500 12 8

80 2500 1.0 10

165 2500 20 36

285 2500 50 2
 Solution:
Design repetitions equivalent to 80kn axle load

= (ADT)(% in traffic volume)(365)

(Design Yrs) (ELF)

% in total Days/ No. of Design Equivalent

Traffic traffic volume Years Design Years ELF Axle Load
2500 25 365 15 0.15 51 328 125.00
2500 16 365 15 0.0044 963 600.00
2500 8 365 15 12 1 314 000 000.00
2500 10 365 15 1 136 875 000.00
2500 36 365 15 20 9 855 000 000.00
2500 2 365 15 50 1 368 750 000.00
Total = 12 726 916 725.00
 (Using Bus Factor and Truck
Factor)

The traffic data was gathered is shown in the table and the design
life of the pavement is 20years.

Year Light Vehicle Buses Trucks Trailers

1980 540 234 124 103

1999 2356 2457 1567 1456
 Solution:
The traffic equivalent load factors (ELF) are as follows;

Cars/jeepneys(light vehicles) = 0.01

Buses = 1.66
Trucks = 1.54
Trailers = 4.03
Computed equivalent number of 80kn single axle load/day

Light vehicles = (540 + 2356)0.01 = 14.48

2
Buses = (234 + 2457)1.66 = 2233.53
2
Trucks = (124 + 1567)1.54 = 1302.07
2
Trailers = (103 + 1456)4.03 = 3141.39
2
Solution:

 Total equivalent number of 80kn single axle load

per day = 14.48 + 2233.53 + 1302.07 + 3141.39

 Total equivalent number of 80kn single axle load

per day = 6691.5, say 6692
 Computed Total Equivalent Standard Axle Load

 Light Vehicles = 14.48 * 20 * 365 = 105704

 Buses = 2233.53 * 20 * 365 = 1631769

 Trucks = 1302.07 * 20 * 365 = 9505111

 Trailers = 3141.39 * 20 * 365 = 22932147

 Total ESAL for both directions = 105704 + 1631769 + 9505111 +

22932147 = 11242584

 Total ESAL for one direction = 5621292 or 5.6 x 106

 * The total equivalent 80kn single axle load will be used as a

design data for the design of pavement.
Sample Problem:
(Calculation of Traffic using Least
Square Method)

Using Least Square Method

Σy = na + bΣx --------------- (1)
Σxy = aΣ(x) + bΣx2 --------------- (2)
Sol:

Substituting values of (1) and (2)

For 1: Σy = na + bΣx
46305 = 5a + 10b --------------- (3)
For 1: Σxy = aΣ(x) + bΣx2
125670 = a (10) + b (30)
From (3)
a = 46305-10b
5
125670 = 10(46305 – 10b) + 30b
5
Substitute (3) in (2)
125670 = a (10) + b (30)
125670 = 2(46305) – 20b + 30b
= 92610 + 10b
10b = 125670 – 92610
b = 3306
from (3), substitute b
46305 = 5a + 10b
5a = 46305 + 10(3306)
a = 15873
In linear equation: y = a + bx
y = 15873 +(3306)x
Since n = x = 5
y5 = 15873 + (3306)(5)
y5 = 32403

Using the Growth Rate Formula

Pn = Pi(1 + i)n
Pn = 32403
* assume the growth rate = 6% per year
* assume design period = 20 years
* consider the one direction of the road
Expected traffic by averaging
Pn = Pi (1 + i)n ---------------- 1st year
32403 = Pi(1 +0.6)1
Pi = 32403/1.06
Pi = 30568.87

Therefore, expected traffic on 20th year if the initial traffic (Pi) is 30568.87 average
daily traffic.
Pn = 30568.87(1.06)20
By average = 32403 + 98038.51 = 130441.51 vehicles/day
2

Expected AADT over the 20 year design period in 2 direction =130441.51* 365days
= 47611151.15 AADT

Expected AADT over the 20 year design period in 1 direction = 47611151.15/2

= 23805575.58 AADT
Pavement Design
Design Variables
a. Analysis Period – 20years
 Analysis period: The period of time in which the analysis
is to be conducted; analogous to the term “design life”
used by designers in the past. This is the time period
used in the AASHTO design equations.

 An analysis period of 20 years shall be used

unless a specified request for a different is made by the
contracting agency. It is recognized that routine
maintenance, such as sealing of cracks on a period,
basis will be necessary during the life of the pavement,
and that rehabilitation of the pavement surface may be
needed before 20years due to destructive climatic
effects and deteriorating effects of normal use.

a. Analysis Period – 20years
 For analysis periods less than 20 years,
the designer shall be mindful of the fact that
the analysis period is not synonymous with
“how long the pavement will last”.
 b. Traffic

 Traffic will be considered on the basis of

cumulative 18-kip equivalent single axle loads
(ESALs) or 80kn equivalent single axle load
during the analysis period.

 Traffic data will generally come from one

or more of the following sources:

 traffic studies provided for the project

 agency traffic projection

 b. Traffic
 The following equations shall be used to determine the
traffic (W18) in the design lane:
 W18 = DD x DL W2-18
 Where:
 W18 =the cumulative 18 kip ESAL units predicted for the
design lane during
 the analysis period. The pavement design is based on this
number.

 DD = a directional distribution factor, expressed as

a ratio, that accounts for the distribution of ESAL units by
direction, eastbound, westbound
 DL = a lane distribution factor, expressed as a ratio,
that accounts for distribution of traffic when two or more lanes
are available in one direction

W2-18 = the cumulative two directional 18kip ESAL units

predicted for a specific section of highway during the analysis
period.

Although the directional distribution factor (DD) is 50%

for most roadways, there are instances where more weight
may be moving in one direction than the other.
`
The side with heavier vehicles is used for the design or
is separated out and designed fro a greater number of ESALs.
Experience ha s shown that DD may vary from 0.30 to 0.70.
 For the lane distribution factor (DL), use the table unless specific
information to the contrary is known about the project;

PERCENT OF 18 KIP ESALs IN DESIGN LANE (DL)

Number of Lanes in each Direction Percent of 18kip ESALs in Design
Lane (DL)
1 100
2 90
3 70
4 60
c. Determination of Truck
Load Factors
 The preferred method is to use traffic data that includes different vehicle
classifications for traffic; this data is to be used for the design of the pavement. If
classifications are not available, an alternate method for estimating traffic impact is
presented in the table below. For heavy truck the truck load factor is 1.20.

Traffic Equivalency Factors

AASHTO Description Traffic Equivalency Factor

Bikes 0
Cars and Jeep (2 axles) 0.0008
Pick up Trucks 0.0122
Buses 0.6803
2 axle 6-tire trucks 0.1890
3 or more axle trucks 0.1303
3 axle tractor semitrailer 0.8646
5+ axle tractor semi trailer 2.3719
5 axle Double Trailer 2.3187
6+ axle Double Trailer 2.3187
 Initial two-way daily traffic, measured in terms of 18 kip ESALs
{Wo(2-18)} can then be determined by multiplying the daily number
of vehicles in that classification times their corresponding
equivalency factors and adding them all together. The following
formula can be used:

 Wo(2-18) = Σ/[(N1 x EF1) + (N2 x EF2) + .

. . (Ni x EFi)]
Where:
Wo(2-18) = initial 2-way daily 18 kip ESALs
Ni = number of vehicles per day of a given
classification
EFi = traffic equivalency factor for the give
classification
 The initial two way daily traffic is intended
to represent the daily average traffic level in the
first year the level is put into service.

 The traffic will increase from that point, at the

selected growth rate , until it achieves the total
number of ESALs at the end of the analysis
period.

Wo (2-18) = [ ADT x (%cars) x

0.0008] + [ ADT x
(%heavy truck) x 1.20]
d. Calculate ESALs
 To complete the traffic conversion, the designer must
calculate the amount of traffic over the entire analysis
period, and apply a growth factor.

 Annual growth rates should be supplied by the traffic

engineering for each project. Traffic in the growing areas
in Metro Manila has experienced growth in the range of
4% to 8% in recent years

 Growth rates are one of the most influential factors in the

final thickness of the pavement, and they should be
estimated as accurately as possible.
d. Calculate ESALs
 (GF) = [(1 + g)n –1]/g

Where:
g = annual growth rate as a % (i.e. use 0.05
in the equation for 5%)
n = number of years in the analysis period
GF = growth factor
 The growth factor will have to be multiplied by the
number of ESALs expected for the first year to
calculate W(2-18).

W (2-18) = Wo (2-18) x 365 GF

Where:

W (2-18)= two way 18 kip ESALs for the analysis

period

Wo (2-18) = initial two way 18 kip ESALs

End of the Slide