Chapter Two

Transformer

1
 2.1 INTRODUCTION
• A transformer is a static device that changes ac electric power at
one voltage level to ac electric power at another voltage level
through the action of a magnetic field.
 It consists.

1 . CORE, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux.

2 . PRIMARY WINDING, which receives energy from the ac source.

3. SECONDARY WINDING, which receives energy from the primary

winding and delivers it to the load.
4. ENCLOSURE, which protects the above components from dirt,
moisture, and mechanical damage.

2
 2.2 TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS

• Transformers can be classified on different basis.

(A) On the basis of construction
 Transformers can be classified into two types as;
(i) Core type transformer and
(ii) Shell type transformer, which are described below.

Figure 2.1: Core-type & shell-type transformer construction 3

 (B) On the basis of their purpose

1. Step up transformer: Voltage increases (with subsequent decrease in current) at

secondary.

2 . Step down transformer: Voltage decreases (with subsequent increase in current) at

secondary.

(C) On the basis of type of supply

1. Single phase transformer

2 . Three phase transformer

(D) On the basis of their use

1. Power transformer: Used in transmission network, high rating

2. Distribution transformer: Used in distribution network, comparatively lower rating

than that of power transformers.

3. Instrument transformer: Used in relay and protection purpose in different instruments

4
(E) On the basis of cooling employed
1. Oil-filled self cooled type
2. Oil-filled water cooled type
3. Air blast type (air cooled)

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 2.3 PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER ACTION
• The action of a transformer is based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic

induction.

Figure 2.2: Schematic diagram of a two-winding transformer

• If N1 is connected to alternating voltage source(V1), then alternating current I1

starts flowing through N1.

• The alternating mmf(N1I1) produces alternating flux φ.

• The alternating flux induces voltage E1 in the primary and E2 in secondary

• If a load is connected across the secondary, load current starts flowing. 6

 2.3.1 Ideal Transformers

• An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding

and an output winding. It has the following properties:
 No iron and copper losses
 No leakage fluxes
 A core of infinite magnetic permeability and of no electrical
resistivity
 Flux is confined to the core and winding resistances are
negligible

7
 Cont….

Figure 2.3: Schematic diagram of 1-𝛷 core- type ideal transformer

• The relationships between the input voltage and the output

voltage, and between the input current and the output current,
are given by the following equations.

v p t  i s t 
 a
v s t  i p t 
In instantaneous quantities

8
 Cont….

v p t  i s t  N p
  a
v s t  i p t  N s

Vp I
In rms quantities
 s a
Vs I p

Np: Number of turns on the primary winding

Ns: Number of turns on the secondary winding
vp(t): voltage applied to the primary side
vs(t): voltage at the secondary side
a: turns ratio
ip(t): current flowing into the primary side
is(t): current flowing into the secondary side
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Derivation of the Relationship

10
 Power in an Ideal Transformer

• Real power P supplied to the transformer by the primary circuit

11
Impedance Transformation through a Transformer

12
 Example 1

• A 100-kVA, 2400/240-V, 60-Hz step-down transformer (ideal) is

used between a transmission line and a distribution system.
a) Determine turns ratio.
b) What secondary load impedance will cause the transformer to
be fully loaded, and what is the corresponding primary
current?
c) Find the load impedance referred to the primary.

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 Solution to Example 1

a) Turns ratio, a = 2400 / 240 = 10

b) Is= 100,000/240 = 416.67 A

Ip = Is /a = 416.67 / 10 = 41.67 A
Magnitude of the load impedance
= Vs/Is = 240/416.7 = 0.576 ohm

c) Load impedance referred to the primary

= a2*0.576 = 57.6 ohm

14
2.3.2 Theory of Operation of Single-Phase Real Transformers

Figure 2.4: Schematic diagram of 1-𝛷 core- type real transformer

Leakage flux: flux that goes through one of the transformer windings
but not on the other one
Mutual flux: flux that remains in the core and links both windings15
 Cont…

 P   M   LP
 S   M   LS

fp: total average primary flux

fM : flux linking both primary and secondary windings
fLP: primary leakage flux
fS: total average secondary flux
fLS: secondary leakage flux

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 Magnetization Current

When an ac power source is connected to a transformer, a current flows in its

primary circuit, even when the secondary circuit is open circuited. This current is
the current required to produce flux in the ferromagnetic core and is called
excitation current. It consists of two components:

1. The magnetization current Im, which is the current required to produce the flux
in the transformer core
2. The core-loss current Ih+e, which is the current required to make up for
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hysteresis and eddy current losses
 Cont….
Excitation current, Io

Magnetization current IM
(current required to produce
flux in the core)

Core-loss current Ih+e

(current required to make up for
hysteresis and eddy current losses)

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 2.4 The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
The losses that occur in transformers have to be accounted for in
any accurate model of transformer behavior.
1. Copper (I2R) losses. Copper losses are the resistive heating
losses in the primary and secondary windings of the transformer.
They are proportional to the square of the current in the
windings.
2. Eddy current losses. Eddy current losses are resistive heating
losses in the core of the transformer.
3. Hysteresis losses. Hysteresis losses are associated with the
rearrangement of the magnetic domains in the core during each
half-cycle.
4. Leakage flux. The fluxes which escape the core and pass through
only one of the transformer windings are leakage fluxes. These
escaped fluxes produce a self-inductance in the primary and
secondary coils.
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 2.4 .1 The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

• Modeling the copper losses: resistive losses in the primary and secondary

windings of the core, represented in the equivalent circuit by RP and RS.

• Modeling the leakage fluxes: primary leakage flux is proportional to the

primary current IP and secondary leakage flux is proportional to the

secondary current IS, represented in the equivalent circuit by XP and XS .

• Modeling the core excitation: Im is proportional to the voltage applied to

the core and lags the applied voltage by 90o. It is modeled by XM.

• Modeling the core loss current: Ih+e is proportional to the voltage applied

to the core and in phase with the applied voltage. It is modeled by RC.

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 Cont….

Figure 2.5: Exact equivalent ckt of real transformer

21
 Cont….

• Although the previous equivalent circuit is an accurate model of a transformer,

it is not a very useful one. To analyze practical circuits containing transformers,
it is normally necessary to convert the entire circuit to an equivalent circuit at a
single voltage level. Therefore, the equivalent circuit must be referred either to
its primary side or to its secondary side in problem solutions.

Figure (a) is the equivalent circuit

of the transformer referred to its
primary side.

Figure (b) is the equivalent circuit

referred to its secondary side.

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 2.4.2. Approximate equivalent ckt of transformer

• Equivalent resistance and reactance value referred to primary

side
= +
= +
• Equivalent resistance and reactance value referred to secondary
side
= +
= +

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 Example 2.
A 50-kVA 2400:240-V 60-Hz distribution transformer has a leakage
impedance of 0.72 +j0.92 ohm in the high-voltage winding and
0.0070 + j0.0090 ohm in the low-voltage winding. At rated
voltage and frequency, the impedance Z of the shunt branch
(equal to the impedance of Rc and j Xm in parallel) accounting
for the exciting current is 6.32 + j 43.7ohm when viewed from the
low-voltage side. Draw the equivalent circuit referred to (a) the
high-voltage side and (b) the low-voltage side, and label the
impedances numerically.

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 Solution

Referred to (a) the high-voltage side (b) Referred to the low-voltage side.

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 2.5 Determining the Values of Components in the
Transformer Model
• It is possible to experimentally determine the parameters of the
approximate equivalent circuit.
• An adequate approximation of these values can be obtained
with only two tests.
• Open-circuit test
• Short-circuit test

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 Circuit Parameters: Open-Circuit Test

Fig. 2.7 open circuit test circuit

• Transformer's secondary winding is open-circuited

• Primary winding is connected to a full-rated line voltage. All the input
current must be flowing through the excitation branch of the transformer.

• The series elements Rp and Xp are too small in comparison to RC and XM to

cause a significant voltage drop, so essentially all the input voltage is

dropped across the excitation branch.
• Input voltage, input current, and input power to the transformer are
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 Circuit Parameters: Open-Circuit Test

• The magnitude of the excitation admittance

I
YE  oc
Voc
• The open-circuit power factor and power factor angle:
Poc 1  Poc 
PF  cos   or ,   cos  
Voc I oc Voc I oc 
•The power factor is always lagging for a transformer, so the current
will lag the voltage by the angle q. Therefore, the admittance YE is:
1 1 I
YE  j  oc   cos 1 PF 
RC X M Voc

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 Circuit Parameters: Short-Circuit Test

Fig. 2.8 short circuit test circuit

• Transformer's secondary winding is short-circuited

• Primary winding is connected to a fairly low-voltage source.
• The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short-circuited windings is
equal to its rated value.
• Input voltage, input current, and input power to the transformer are measured.
• Excitation current is negligible, since the input voltage is very low. Thus, the
voltage drop in the excitation branch can be ignored. All the voltage drop can
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be attributed to the series elements in the circuit
 Circuit Parameters: Short-Circuit Test

• The magnitude of the series impedance:

V
Z SE  sc
I sc
•The short-circuit power factor and power factor angle :
Psc  P 
PF  cos   or ,   cos 1  sc 
Vsc I sc Vsc I sc 
•Therefore the series impedance is:
Z SE  Req  jX eq

   V
 R p  a 2 Rs  j X p  a 2 X s  sc  cos 1 PF 
I sc

• It is possible to determine the total series impedance.

• These tests were performed on the primary side, so, the circuit
impedances are referred to the primary side.
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 2.6 Voltage regulation and efficiency of transformer
Voltage Regulation

• Because a real transformer has series impedance within it, the

output voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if the
input voltage remains constant.
• The voltage regulation of a transformer is the change in the
magnitude of the secondary terminal voltage from no-load to full-
load. V no  load   Vs  full  load 
%Voltage Re gulation  s  100
Vs  full  load 

V p no  load   V p  full  load 

  100
V p  full  load 
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 Transformer Efficiency

Power Output When


Power Input
Power Input  Losses

Power Input
Losses
1
Power Input
Pcopper loss  Pcore loss
1
Pcopper loss  Pcore loss  V s I s cos 

• Usually the efficiency for a power transformer is between 0.9 to 0.99. The
32
higher the rating of a transformer, the greater is its efficiency.
 Example 3

3 A 200 kVA rated transformer has a full-load copper loss of

1.5 kW and an iron loss of 1 kW. Determine the transformer
efficiency at full load and 0.85 power factor.

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Soln

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 2.7. Three-Phase Transformers
• Three phase transformers are used throughout industry to change values of
three phase voltage and current.
• For higher-power applications, three-phase transforms are commonly used.
• The transformers for such circuits can be constructed either as a 3-phase
bank of independent identical transformers or as a single transformer wound
on a single 3-legged core (lighter, cheaper, more efficient).

35
 Cont…

• We assume that any single transformer in a 3-phase transformer

(bank) behaves exactly as a single-phase transformer.
• The impedance, voltage regulation, efficiency, and other
calculations for 3-phase transformers are done on a per-phase basis .
• Three phase power is the most common way in which power is
produced, transmitted, and used.
• Therefore understanding of how three phase transformer
connections are made is essential.

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 Three Phase Transformer connection:
There are only 4 possible transformer combinations:

• Delta to Delta (Δ- Δ) - used in industrial applications

• Delta to Wye (Δ-Y ) - used in commercial, industrial and the most common.

• Wye to Delta (Y-Δ ) - used in high voltage transmissions

• Wye to Wye (Y-Y) - used rarely, causes harmonics and balancing problems.

• For three-phase Alternating Current (AC) circuits, there is a relationship between line and

phase voltage that is defined by the connection method (wye or delta).

WYE:
(Line voltage) = (Phase voltage) * sqrt(3)
(Line current) = (Phase current)

DELTA:
(Line voltage) = (Phase Voltage)
(Line current) = (Phase current) * sqrt(3)
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Delta-Delta connection

38
Delta-Wye connection

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Wye-Delta connection

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Wye-Wye connection

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 2.8 Autotransformer & instrument transformer
2.9.1 Autotransformer
• Auto transformer is kind of electrical transformer where primary and secondary
shares same common single winding.
• In Auto Transformer, one single winding is used as primary winding as well as
secondary winding.
• As in an ordinary transformer, the ratio of secondary to primary voltages is equal
to the ratio of the number of turns of the winding they connect to.
• Fig below shows the physical arrangement of autotransformer

Figure 2.9: Autotransformer - Physical Arrangement

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 Cont…
• In Autotransformer two windings are not only magnetically coupled but
also electrically coupled.
• The input to the transformer is constant but the output can be varied by
varying the tapings.
• It is used quite extensively in bulk power transmission systems because
of its ability to multiply the effective KVA capacity of a transformer.
• The winding AB of total turns N1 is considered as primary winding.
• This winding is tapped from point ′C′ and the portion BC is considered
as secondary.
• Let's assume the number of turns in between points ′B′ and ′C′ is N 2.
• If V1 voltage is applied across the winding i.e. in between ′A′ and ′B′.

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 Cont…

• Hence, the voltage across the portion BC of the winding, will be,

•As BC portion of the winding is considered as secondary, it can easily be

understood that value of constant ′k′ is nothing but turns ratio or voltage ratio of
that auto transformer.
•When load is connected between secondary terminals i.e. between ′B′ and ′C′,
load electric current I2 starts flowing.
•The electric current in the secondary winding or common winding is the
difference of I2 & I1. (I2−I1)

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 Advantages of auto transformers

• The advantages of an auto transformers over double

wound transformers include:
1. Saving in cost since less copper is needed
2. Less volume, hence less weight
3. Higher efficiency, resulting from lower R losses
4. Smaller percentage voltage regulation.

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 Disadvantages of an Autotransformer

• Does not have the primary to secondary winding isolation of a conventional double

wound transformer. Then autotransformer’s can not safely be used for stepping down

higher voltages to much lower voltages suitable for smaller loads.

• If the secondary side winding becomes open-circuited, current stops flowing through

the primary winding and stopping the transformer action resulting in the full primary

voltage being applied to the secondary circuit.

• If the secondary circuit suffers a short-circuit condition, the resulting primary current

would be much larger than an equivalent double wound transformer due to the

increased flux linkage damaging the autotransformer.

• Since the neutral connection is common to both the primary and secondary windings,

earthing of the secondary winding automatically earths the primary as there is no

isolation between the two windings. Double wound transformers are sometimes used
46
to isolate equipment from earth.
 Application

• Used in both Synchronous motors and induction motors.

• Used in electrical apparatus testing labs since the voltage can
be smoothly and continuously varied.
• They find application as boosters in AC feeders to increase the
voltage levels.

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 Example 4
• A single-phase auto transformer has a voltage ratio 320 V:250V and supplies a
load of 20 kVA at 250 V. Assuming an ideal transformer, determine the current in
each section of the winding.

• soln
Rating =20 kVA = V1I1 = V2I2.

The current flowing in each section of the transformer is shown in Fig below

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 2.9.2 Instrument transformer
• A device that serves as an input source of currents and voltages
from an electric power system to instruments, relays, meters, and
control device.
• The basic design is that of a transformer with the primary winding
connected to the power system, and the secondary winding to the
sensing and measuring equipment.

 Instrument transformer can be classified as ;

49
• A current transformer is a transformer, which produces in its secondary
winding a current, which is proportional to the current flowing in its
primary winding.
• The secondary current is usually smaller in magnitude than the
primary current, and connected in series to the equipment.
• In current transformers the primary usually consists of one or two
turns whilst the secondary can have several hundred turns.
• Figure below shows current transformer Symbols and Simplified
Concepts. t and
e n
urr ols
: C mb s
. 10 Sy pt
re 2 rmer once
u o C
Fig ansf fied
Tr pli
50
m
 Cont…

• Construction of C.T. ; C.T. has a primary coil of one or more

turns of thick wire connected in series with the line whose current
is to be measured. The secondary consist of large number of turns
of fine wire, is connected across the ammeter terminals.
• Current Transformers normally known as C.T. is a step up
transformer.

t C.T
en
n gem
a rra
a l
ic
typ
. 11A
2
FIG

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 Voltage transformers
• Voltage or Potential transformer (PT) is a step down transformer
having many primary turns but few secondary turns.
• They are designed to present negligible load to the supply being
measured and have an accurate voltage ratio and phase
relationship to enable accurate secondary connected metering.
• Figure below shows voltage transformer Symbols and
er
Simplified Concepts. orm ts
f
s cep
n
a n
Tr Co
e nt ied
urr plif
2 : C Sim
2.1 nd
re sa
i gu bol
F m
Sy 52
 Cont…

• A voltage transformer is ideally a transformer under no-load

conditions where the load current is zero and the voltage drop is
only caused by the magnetizing current and is thus negligible.
• The typical arrangement is shown below.

Fig 2.13 A typical arrangement V.T

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 Generally
The main tasks of instrument transformers are:
• To transform currents or voltages from a usually high value to a
value easy to handle for relays and instruments.
• To insulate the metering circuit from the primary high voltage
system.
• To provide possibilities of standardizing the instruments and
relays to a few rated currents and voltages.

54
 2.10 Parallel operation of transformer

• Two or more transformers are connected to the same supply bus bars on the
primary side and to a common bus bar/load on the secondary side.
• Such requirement is frequently encountered in practice.

Why Parallel Operation of Transformers is required

1. Non-availability of a single large transformer to meet the total load requirement.

2. The power demand might have increased over a time. More transformers

connected in parallel will then be pressed into service.

3. To ensure improved reliability. Even if one of the transformers gets into a fault or

is taken out for maintenance/repair the load can continued to be serviced.

4 . When transportation problems limit installation of large transformers at site, it

may be easier to transport smaller ones to site and work them in parallel.
55
 Cont……
• Fig. below shows the physical arrangement of two single phase
transformers working in parallel on the primary side.
• Transformer A and Transformer B are connected to input voltage bus bars.

• After determining the polarities they are connected to output/load bus

bars.

Figure 2.14: Parallel Operation of Two Single Phase Transformers - Physical

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 Conditions for Parallel Operation of Transformers

• Certain conditions have to be met before two or more transformers

are connected in parallel and share a common load satisfactorily.
1.The voltage ratio must be the same.
2. The per unit impedance of each machine on its own base must be
the same.
3. The polarity must be the same, so that there is no circulating
current between the transformers.
4. The phase sequence must be the same and no phase difference
must exist between the voltages of the two transformers.

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 OF O
N D TW
E
E T ER
H
T AP
CH

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