EE6351 BASICS OF ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

MODULE 5- BASICS OF ELECTRONICS

 Semiconductors
Semiconductors. A semiconductor material is one whose
electrical properties lie in between those of insulators and good
conductors. Examples are : germanium and silicon.
In terms of energy bands, semiconductors can be defined as those
materials which have
1. Almost an empty conduction band and
2. Almost filled valence band with a very narrow energy gap (of
the order of 1 eV) separating the two.
3. At 0ºK, there are no electrons in the conduction band and the
valence band is completely filled.
 Semiconductors
 with increase in temperature, width of the forbidden energy
bands is decreased so that some of the electrons are liberated
into the conduction band. In other words, conductivity of
semiconductors increases with temperature.
 Such departing electrons leave behind positive holes in the
valence band .Hence, semiconductor current is the sum of
electron and hole currents flowing in opposite directions.
 Semiconductors
Semiconductor:Special class of material having conductivity
between that of a good conductor and insulator .

Types:
1. Single crystal: Ge.Si
2. Compound semiconductors: 2 or more semiconductor material
of different atomic structure. Ex: Gallium Arsenide(Ga As),
Cadmium sulfide( cds). Gallium Nitride(Ga N), Gallium
Arsenide phosphide( GaAs P).

Commonly used: Ge,SI,GaAs

Classification of Semiconductors
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the
semiconductor material in its extremely pure form.
Common examples of such semiconductors are : pure
germanium and silicon which have forbidden energy gaps of 0.72
eV and 1.1 eV respectively.
The energy gap is so small that even at ordinary room
temperature, there are many electrons which possess sufficient
energy to jump across the small energy gap between the valence
and the conduction bands.
However, it is worth noting that for each electron liberated into
the conduction band, a positively charged hole is created in the
valence band .
 Extrinsic semiconductor

A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping

process is called an extrinsic material.

Types: Ptype, N type

 n -Type Material
An n -type material is created by introducing impurity elements
that have five valence electrons ( pentavalent ), such as antimony ,
arsenic , and phosphorus.
Each is a member of a subset group of elements in the Periodic
Table of Elements referred to as Group V because each has five
valence electrons.
There is, however, an additional fifth electron due to the impurity
atom, which is unassociated with any particular covalent bond.
This remaining electron, loosely bound to its parent (antimony)
atom, is relatively free to move within the newly formed n -type
material. Since the inserted impurity atom has donated a relatively
“free” electron to the structure: it is called donar atom
 n -Type Material

Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are called donor

atoms.
It is important to realize that even though a large number of free
carriers have been established in the n -type material, it is still
electrically neutral since ideally the number of positively charged
protons in the nuclei is still equal to the number of free and
orbiting negatively charged electrons in the structure.
 n -Type Material
In an n-type material the electron is called the majority carrier and the
hole the minority carrier.
 p -Type Material

The p -type material is formed by doping a pure germanium or

silicon crystal with impurity atoms having three valence electrons.
The elements most frequently used for this purpose are boron ,
gallium , and indium .
Each is a member of a subset group of elements in the Periodic
Table of Elements referred to as Group III because each has three
valence electrons.
p -Type Material

In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is
the minority carrier.
 p -Type Material

There is now an insufficient number of electrons to complete the

covalent bonds of the newly formed lattice. The resulting
vacancy is called a hole and is represented by a small circle or a
plus sign, indicating the absence of a negative charge. Since the
resulting vacancy will readily accept a free electron:
The diffused impurities with three valence electrons are called
acceptor atoms.
The resulting p -type material is electrically neutral
Formation of the Depletion Region- PN Junction
The potential difference of the electric field across the depletion
region is the amount of voltage required to move electrons
through the electric field. This potential difference is called the
barrier potential and is expressed in volts
Amount of voltage equal to the barrier potential and with the
proper polarity must be applied across a pn junction before
electrons will begin to flow across the junction
The barrier potential of a pn junction depends on several
factors, including the type of semiconductive material, the amount
of doping, and the temperature.
The typical barrier potential is approximately 0.7 V for silicon
and 0.3 V for germanium at 250C;
Symbol – PN Junction Diode
Working & characteristics of PN junction diode

This region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the

depletion region due to the depletion of carriers in this region.

Since the diode is a two-terminal device, the application of a

voltage across its terminals leaves three possibilities:
no bias (VD 0 V),
forward bias (VD > 0 V), and
reverse bias (VD <0 V).
No BIAS
 No-bias conditions
for a semiconductor diode.
Reverse-Bias Condition (VD < 0 V)
 Reverse-Bias Condition (VD < 0 V)
The term saturation comes from the fact that it reaches its
maximum level quickly and does not change significantly with
increase in the reverse-bias potential,.

Reverse-bias conditions for a

semiconductor diode
The extremely small reverse current in a reverse-biased diode is
due to the minority carriers from thermally generated electron-
hole pairs.
Forward-biased p–n junction:
 Forward-Bias Condition ( VD > 0 V)
The general characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be defined by
the following equation, referred to as Shockley’s equation, for the
forward- and reverse-bias regions:
I s is the reverse saturation current
V D is the applied forward-bias voltage across the diode
(
VD ή is an ideality factor, which is a function of the operating
VT
I D  I S (e  1) conditions and physical construction; it has a range between 1 & 2
k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 * 10 -23 J/K
KTk T K =absolute temperature in kelvins= 273+the temperature in °C
VT  q is the magnitude of electronic charge = 1.6 * 10 -19 C
q
 Temperature Effects
For a forward-biased diode, as temperature is increased, the
forward current increases for a given value of forward voltage.
Also, for a given value of forward current, the forward voltage
decreases. The blue curve is at room temperature(250C) and the
red curve is at an elevated temperature The barrier potential
decreases by 2 mV for each degree increase in temperature.
For a reverse-biased diode, as temperature is increased, the
reverse current increases.
Temperature effect on the
diode V-I characteristic.
Temperature effect on
the diode V-I
characteristic.
 RESISTANCE LEVELS
As the operating point of a diode moves from one region to
another the resistance of the diode will also change due to the
nonlinear shape of the characteristic curve.
The type of applied voltage or signal will define the resistance
level of interest.
 DC or Static Resistance:

The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a

semiconductor diode will result in an operating point on the
characteristic curve that will not change with time.
The resistance of the diode at the operating point can be found
simply by finding the corresponding levels of VD and ID

VD
RD 
ID
 DC or Static Resistance:
The dc resistance levels at the knee and below will be greater
than the resistance levels obtained for the vertical rise section of
the characteristics.
The resistance levels in the reverse-bias region will naturally be
quite high.

Determining the dc resistance of a diode at a particular

operating point.
 AC or Dynamic Resistance
The dc resistance of a diode is independent of the shape of the
characteristic in the region surrounding the point of interest.
If a sinusoidal rather than dc input is applied, the situation will
change completely.
The varying input will move the instantaneous operating point up
and down a region of the characteristics and thus defines a
specific change in current and voltage
With no applied varying signal, the point of operation would be
the Q-point appearing determined by the applied dc levels. The
word quiescent, which means “still or unvarying.”
Defining the dynamic or ac resistance.
A straight line drawn tangent to the
curve through the Q-point will define
a particular change in voltage and
current that can be used to determine
the ac or dynamic resistance for this
region of the diode characteristics. An
effort should be made to keep the
change in voltage and current as small
as possible and equidistant to either
side of the Q-point
Determining the ac resistance at a Q-point.

The steeper the slope, the less the value of

ΔVd for the same change in ΔId and the
less the resistance. The ac resistance in the
vertical-rise region of the characteristic is
therefore quite small, while the ac
resistance is much higher at low current
levels.
In general, therefore, the lower the Q-
point of operation (smaller current or
lower voltage) the higher the ac
resistance
 AC or Dynamic Resistance
Differential calculus states: The derivative of a function at a point
is equal to the slope of the tangent line drawn at that point.

If we find the derivative of the general equation

for the semiconductor diode with respect to the applied forward
bias and then invert the result, we will have an equation for the
dynamic or ac resistance in that region.
 KVD
( )
dI D d [ I s e  1] K ( I D  I S )
Tk
 
dVD dV Tk
dI D K
I D  I S ;  ID
dVD TK
  1; K  11,600
@ 25 C , TK  TC  273 K  298
0 0 0

K 11,600
  38.93
Tk 298
dI D dVD 26mV
 38.93I D ;  / Ge.Si
dVD dI D ID
 AC or Dynamic Resistance

The above equation implies that the dynamic resistance can be

found simply by substituting the quiescent value of the diode
current into the equation. There is no need to have the
characteristics available or to worry about sketching tangent lines
Equation is accurate only for values of ID in the vertical-rise
section of the curve. For lesser values of ID, η= 2 (silicon) and
the value of rd obtained must be multiplied by a factor of 2.
For small values of ID below the knee of the curve, above equation
becomes inappropriate.
 AC or Dynamic Resistance
All the resistance levels determined thus far have been defined by the
p-n junction and do not include the resistance of the semiconductor
material itself (called body resistance) and the resistance introduced by
the connection between the semiconductor material and the external
metallic conductor (called contact resistance).
These additional resistance levels can be included by adding resistance
denoted by rB ;
The factor rB can range from typically 0.1 for high-power devices to 2
for some low-power, general-purpose diodes.
' 26mV
rd   rB
ID
 Recall last problem
Find the dynamic resistance
From Graph Using equation Remarks

The difference of 1.5

could be treated as
the contribution due
to rB.
The difference of
about 1 could be
treated as the
contribution of rB.
 Average AC Resistance
If the input signal is sufficiently
large to produce a broad swing such
as indicated in Fig. the resistance
associated with the device for this
region is called the average ac
resistance. The average ac resistance
is, by definition, the resistance
determined by a straight line drawn
between the two intersections
established by the maximum and
minimum values of input voltage.
In equation form
Average AC Resistance
DIODE MODELS-Electrical symbol for a diode
and how a diode can be modeled for circuit
analysis
An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best
represent the actual terminal characteristics of a device, system or such in a
particular operating region.
The Ideal Diode Model: The ideal model of a diode is the least accurate
approximation and can be represented by a simple switch. When the diode is
forward-biased, it ideally acts like a closed (on) switch.When the diode is
reverse-biased, it ideally acts like an open (off) switch, Although the barrier
potential, the forward dynamic resistance, and the reverse current are all
neglected, this model is adequate for most troubleshooting when you are
trying to determine if the diode is working properly.
Since the barrier potential and the forward dynamic resistance are
neglected, the diode is assumed to have a zero voltage across it
when forward-biased.

Vbias
VF  0; I F 
Rlim it
I R  0;VR  Vbias
 POWER SUPPLIES
 Power supplies are an essential part of all electronic systems from
the simplest to the most complex.
 A basic power supply consists of a rectifier, a filter, and a regulator.
A power supply filter greatly reduces the fluctuations in the output
voltage of a half-wave or full-wave rectifier and produces a nearly
constant-level dc voltage.
 Filtering is necessary because electronic circuits require a constant
source of dc voltage and current to provide power and biasing for
proper operation.
 Filtering is accomplished using capacitors.
 Voltage regulation is usually accomplished with integrated circuit
voltage regulators. A voltage regulator prevents changes in the
filtered dc voltage due to variations in line voltage or load.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY
 REGULATION OF POWER SUPPLY

Line regulation specifies how much change occurs in the output voltage
for a given change in the input voltage. It is typically defined as a ratio
of a change in output voltage for a corresponding change in the input
voltage expressed as a percentage.

Load regulation specifies how much change occurs in the output voltage
over a certain range of load current values, usually from minimum
current (no load, NL) to maximum current (full load, FL).
Types of Rectification

Half Wave Rectifier

Full Wave Rectifier

6
 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

It only allows one half of AC waveform to pass through to load.

Half-wave rectifier circuit

8
Conduction region (0 to T/2): Diode forward-biased

Non-conducting region (T/2 to T ): Diode reverse-biased

 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER-Performance Parameter

Assume diode are ideal;

Npri/Nsec=1;

v pri (t )  vsec (t )  Vm Sinwt

Average/DC output vol tage : Pulsates at 50 HZ

1 T
V0, DC   vo (t )d (t )
T 0
1 
V0, DC 
2 0
Vm Sin td (t ) io

1 Vm
  Vm cos t 0 


2  vD
2.RMS o/p voltage
T
1
 vo (t ) dt
2
Vo,RMS 
T 0


1
 m
2
 V sin 2
wtd ( wt )
2 0


1 1  cos 2t 
V
2
  d ( wt )
2
m
0  2 
Vm

2
 Vo.dc Vm
3.Average o/p current, I 0,dc  
R  *R
Vo.rms Vm
4.RMS o/p current, I 0,rms  
R 2R
1  Vm Im
5. Average diode current , I d , DC  
2 0 R
Sin td (t ) 

 2
1 Vm Im
  sin wtd ( wt ) 
2
6.RMSdiode current , I d , RMS
2 0 R 2
2
V0, RMS Ripple is the fluctuating AC component present in rectified
7.Form factor   1.57 DC output. Ripple Factor is the ratio of rms value of ac
Vo ,dc component present in the rectified output to the
average value of rectified output. It is a dimensionless
8.Ripple factor  FF 2  1  1.21 quantity .

2 2
9.Ripple voltage, V0,r  V0, RMS  Vo ,dc  0.3855Vm
 2 2
Po,dc Vo ,dc / RL Vm * 4
10.Rectification efficiency,    2
Vo ,rms / RL  *Vm
2 2
Po.ac
Rectification efficiency,  40.52%
Po,dc
11.Transformer Utilisation factor, TUF 
VA rating of secondaryside of transformer
Vo ,dc * I 0,dc 2 2
   28.65%
Vs * I 0, RMS  2

The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering the breakdown region is called the
peak inverse voltage (referred to simply as the PIV rating) or the peak reverse voltage (denoted the PRV
rating). If an application requires a PIV rating greater than that of a single unit, a number of diodes of the
same characteristics can be connected in series. Diodes are also connected in parallel to increase the current-
carrying capacity. Diode must withstand this reverse repetitve voltage.
PIV rating for HW rectifier =Vm
Effect of Diode Barrier Potential on Half-Wave
Rectifier Output Voltage
The applied signal must now be at least 0.7 V before the diode
can turn “on.” For levels of v i less than 0.7 V, the diode is still in
an open-circuit state and vo= 0 V,
When conducting, the difference between vo and vi is a fixed level
of V K = 0.7 V and vo = vi - VK.The net effect is a reduction
in dc voltage level.
 Rectifier Circuit: Full-Wave

Full-wave rectifier, center-tapped design

14
 Rectifier circuit: Full-Wave
i Here C is a centre tap on the secondary of
id1
the transformer, thus the e.m.f.s
A
D1 induced
in each section of the secondary are
vR
equal, and when the potential of A is
R positive with respect to C, so is that of C
C
positive with respect to B i.e.
vAC  v  Vm sin(t)
B
id2 vBC  v  Vm sin(t)
D2

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) seen by each diode = 2Vm

 Rectifier Circuit: Full-Wave

Full-wave center-tap rectifier: Top half of secondary winding conducts

during positive half-cycle of input, delivering positive half-cycle to
load.
 Rectifier Circuit: Full-Wave

Full-wave center-tap rectifier: During negative input half-cycle, bottom

half of secondary winding conducts, delivering a positive half-cycle to
the load.
 FULL -WAVE RECTIFIER(CENTRE TAP CONFIG)-
Performance Parameter
Assume diodes are ideal;
Npri/Nsec=1;

v pri (t )  vsec (t )  Vm Sinwt

Average/DC output vol tage : Pulsates at 100 HZ
1 T
V0, DC 
T 
0
vo (t )d (t )

1 
V0, DC 
 
0
Vm Sin td (t ) io

1 2Vm
  Vm cos t 0 

  vD
2.RMS o/p voltage
T
1
v
2
Vo,RMS  o (t ) dt
T 0


1
 m
2
 V sin 2
wtd ( wt )
 0


1 1  cos 2t 
V
2
  d ( wt )
 0
m
 2 
Vm

2
 Vo.dc 2Vm
3.Average o/p current, I 0,dc  
R  *R
Vo.rms Vm
4.RMS o/p current, I 0,rms  
R 2R
1  Vm Im
5. Average diode current , I d 1, DC 
2 0 R
Sin td (t ) 

 2
1 Vm Im
  sin wtd ( wt ) 
2
6.RMSdiode current , I d 1, RMS
2 0 R 2
2
V0, RMS
7.Form factor   1.11
Vo ,dc
8.Ripple factor  FF 2  1  0.48
2 2
9.Ripple voltage, V0,r  V0, RMS  Vo ,dc  0.3078Vm
 2 2
Po,dc Vo ,dc / RL Vm * 8
10.Rectifi cation efficiency ,    2
Vo ,rms / RL  *Vm
2 2
Po.ac
Rectificat ion efficiency ,  81.05%
Po,dc
11.Transfo rmer Utili sation factor , TUF 
VA rating of transform er
VA10  VA20
VA rating of transform er 
2
Vm I m
VA rating of each of secondary winding of transfor mer  *
2 2
Vm I m
Total VA rating of secondary winding of transfor mer  2 * *
2 2
 0.707 Vm I m
Vm I m
VA rating of primary winding of transfor mer  *  0.5Vm I m
2 2
 0.5V m*I m  0.707Vm I m
Effective VA rating of transform er 
2
 0.6035V m*I m
TUF  0.672

PIV rating for FW centre tapped rectifier =2Vm

 Rectifier circuit: Full-Wave Bridge
Another, more popular full-wave rectifier design exists, and it is built
around four-diode bridge configuration.

Full-wave bridge rectifier

 Rectifier circuit: Full-Wave Bridge

Arrows show electron flow (opposite of current direction)

for positive half-cycle
 Rectifier circuit: Full-Wave Bridge

Arrows show electron flow (opposite of current direction)

for negative half-cycle
 Rectifier circuit: Full-Wave Bridge
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) seen by each diode = Vm

Vm
sin(ωt)

Rectification efficiency η = (Vdc/Vrms)2 = 8/π2 ~ 80%

 FULL -WAVE RECTIFIER-Performance Parameter

Assume diodes are ideal;

Npri/Nsec=1;

v pri (t )  vsec (t )  Vm Sinwt

Average/DC output vol tage : Pulsates at 100 HZ

1 T
Vo , DC 
T 
0
vo (t )d (t )

1  io

 
V0, DC  Vm Sin td (t )
0

1 2Vm
  Vm cos t 0 
 vD
 
2.RMS o/p voltage
T
1
v
2
Vo,RMS  o (t ) dt
T 0


1
 m
2
 V sin 2
wtd ( wt )
 0


1 1  cos 2t 
V
2
  d ( wt )
 0
m
 2 
Vm

2
 Vo.dc 2Vm
3.Average o/p current, I 0,dc  
R  *R
Vo.rms Vm
4.RMS o/p current, I 0,rms  
R 2R
1  Vm Im
5. Average diode current , I d 1, DC 
2 0 R
Sin td (t ) 

 2
1 Vm Im
  sin wtd ( wt ) 
2
6.RMSdiode current , I d 1, RMS
2 0 R 2
2
V0, RMS Ripple is the fluctuating AC component present in rectified
7.Form factor   1.11 DC output. Ripple Factor is the ratio of rms value of ac
Vo ,dc component present in the rectified output to the
average value of rectified output. It is a dimensionless
8.Ripple factor  FF 2  1  0.48 quantity .

2 2
9.Ripple voltage, V0,r  V0, RMS  Vo ,dc  0.3078Vm
 2 2
Po,dc Vo ,dc / RL Vm * 8
10.Rectifi cation efficiency ,    2
Vo ,rms / RL  *Vm
2 2
Po.ac
Rectificat ion efficiency ,  81.05%
Po,dc
11.Transfo rmer Utili sation factor , TUF 
VA rating of secondary side of transform er
Vo ,dc * I 0,dc 2Vm * 2 I m
   81.06%
Vs * I 0, RMS 2 Vm Im
 ( * )
2 2
The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering the breakdown region is called the
peak inverse voltage (referred to simply as the PIV rating) or the peak reverse voltage (denoted the PRV
rating). If an application requires a PIV rating greater than that of a single unit, a number of diodes of the
same characteristics can be connected in series. Diodes are also connected in parallel to increase the current-
carrying capacity. Diode must withstand this reverse repititve voltage.
PIV rating for FW rectifier =Vm
Effect of Barrier potential
 AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN

Avalanche breakdown Avalanche breakdown occurs in moderately and lightly doped pn

junctions with a wide depletion region. Electron hole pairs thermally generated in the
depletion region are accelerated by the external reverse bias. These electron can interact
with other Si atoms and if they have sufficient energy can knock off electrons from these Si
atoms. These electrons imparts sufficient energy to disrupt a covalent bond.This process is
called impact ionization and leads to production of a large number of electrons. This causes
the rapid rise in current.
ZENER BREAKDOWN- second mechanism that disrupts the covalent bonds.

With increase in doping concentration the breakdown mechanism, changes from Avalanche to a
tunneling mechanism. This is called a Zener breakdown. This is because the depletion width
decreases with dopant concentration..Electrons tunnel from the valence band on the p side to the
conduction band on the n side, driven by the externally applied reverse bias. Tunneling also
leads to a large increase in current. The use of a sufficiently strong electric field at the junction
can cause a direct rupture of the bond. If the electric field exerts a strong force on a bound
electron, the electron can be torn from the covalent bond thus causing the number of electron-
hole pair combinations to multiply. This mechanism is called high field emission or Zener
breakdown. The value of reverse voltage at which this occurs is controlled by the amount of
doping of the diode. A heavily doped diode has a low Zener breakdown voltage, while a lightly
doped diode has a high Zener breakdown voltage.
Vz- Nominal Zener voltage Specific
for IZT ;
IZT = Zener test current ; related to
VZ;
∆VZ = Change in Zener voltage;
IZ = current going through the diode
for different values of VZ ;
ZZ = Zener impedance Δ VZ / Δ IZ
IZK = Minimum dc current;
IZM= Maximum DC current
PD(max) –max power dissipated
=VZ* IZM
The Zener Diode is used in its “reverse bias” or reverse breakdown
mode, i.e. the diodes anode connects to the negative supply. From the I-
V characteristics curve above, we can see that the zener diode has a
region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative
voltage regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode.
This voltage remains almost constant even with large changes in current
providing the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown
current IZ(min) and its maximum current rating IZ(max).
The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is
almost constant turns out to be an important characteristic of the zener
diode as it can be used in the simplest types of voltage regulator
applications.
The function of a voltage regulator is to provide a constant output
voltage to a load connected in parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the
A Zener diode will continue to regulate
its voltage until the diodes holding
current falls below the
minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse
breakdown region.
Zener Diode Regulator
Zener Diodes can be used to produce a
stabilised voltage output with low ripple
under varying load current conditions.
By passing a small current through the
diode from a voltage source, via a
suitable current limiting resistor (RS), the
Zener diode will conduct sufficient
current to maintain a voltage drop of Vout
 REGULATION OF POWER SUPPLY

Line regulation specifies how much change occurs in the output voltage
for a given change in the input voltage. It is typically defined as a ratio
of a change in output voltage for a corresponding change in the input
voltage expressed as a percentage.

Load regulation specifies how much change occurs in the output voltage
over a certain range of load current values, usually from minimum
current (no load, NL) to maximum current (full load, FL).
The basic purpose of power supply is to provide fixed voltage to the working
circuit with sufficient current handling capacity. These can be two types;
Unregulated power supply: The o/p of such supply changes due to change in
load, change in source voltage.
Regulated power supply: The o/p of such supply does not change due to
change in load, change in source voltage. Regulated power supplies are used
for critical electronic loads;
Unlike ordinary diodes Zener diodes are used in breakdown region;
Zener diodes are used to get reasonably regulated dc voltage from the input
voltage with varying input voltage and load resistance.
This is achieved by passing current through the Zener diode in breakdown
region.
The nominal breakdown voltage is specified as Zener voltage Ex: 4.7 V , 9.1V
 Analysis of Circuit- Zener diodes

Step 1:The state of the diode must be

determined. OC Zener diode and find the
voltage across it
If V > VZ, the Zener diode is “on” and
the equivalent model of Fig. 1 can be
substituted.
If V < VZ, the diode is “off” and the
open-circuit equivalence is substituted.
Step 2: Substitute the appropriate
equivalent circuit and solve for the
desired unknowns
 Zener diode as shunt regulator

Fixed Vi, Variable RL

Due to the offset voltage VZ, there is a specific range of resistor values
(and therefore load current) which will ensure that the Zener is in the
“on” state.
Too small a load resistance RL will result in a voltage VL across the load
resistor less than VZ , and the Zener device will be in the “off” state.
To determine the minimum load resistance that will turn the Zener
diode on, simply calculate the value of RL that will result in a load
voltage VL= VZ.
 Solving for RL, we have

Any load resistance value greater than the RL obtained from above Eq. will
ensure that the Zener diode is in the “on” state and the diode can be
replaced by its VZ source equivalent.
The condition defined by above Eq. establishes the minimum RL but in
turn specifies the maximum IL
Once the diode is in the “on” state, the
voltage across R remains fixed at

The Zener current IZ is minimum when IL is a maximum and a

maximum IZ when IL is a minimum value since IR is constant.
Since IZ is limited to IZM as provided on the data sheet, it does affect the
range of RL and therefore IL. Substituting IZM for IZ establishes the
minimum IL as
Fixed RL, Variable Vi
For fixed values of RL in Fig the voltage Vi must be sufficiently large to turn the
Zener diode on. The minimum turn-on voltage Vi =Vimin is determined by

The maximum value of Vi is limited by the maximum Zener current IZM. Since
IZM = IR -IL,

Since IL is fixed at VZ/RL and IZM is the maximum value of IZ, the
maximum Vi is defined by
(a) For the Zener diode network of Fig shown below. determine VL, VR, IZ, and
PZ.
(b) Repeat part (a) with RL = 3 k.
Since V = 8.73 V is less than VZ = 10 V, the
diode is in the “off” state as shown on the
characteristics . open-circuit the Zener diode
Since V 12 V is greater than VZ 10 V, the diode is in the “on” state and
the network of Fig. will result.

The power dissipated,

which is less than the specified PZM = 30 mW.

For the network , determine the range of RL and IL that will result in
VRL being maintained at 10 V. Determine the maximum wattage rating
of the diode.

To determine the value of RL that

will turn the Zener diode on,
Determine the range of values of Vi that will maintain the Zener diode
in the “on” state.
 BJT

The transistor was developed by Dr.Shockley along with Bell

Laboratories team in 1951
Term BJT- Bipolar Junction Transistor:
BIpolar-refers to the condition that the current conduction is due to
both electrons and holes.
Junction- has 2 PN junction
Transistor=Transfer+resistor; In active mode, (amplifier)Device
transfer current from low input impedance circuit to high impedance
circuit. Resulting in amplification
The transistor is a main building block of all modern electronic
systems
 Construction-BJT
There are two basic types of transistors :
(1)the bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
(2)the field-effect transistor (FET)

The bipolar junction transistor is used in two broad areas of

electronics :
(1) as a linear amplifier to boost an electrical signal and
(2) as an electronic switch.
Structure of PNP NPN transistor
The emitter base depletion layer
penetrates slightly into the emitter
as it is a heavily doped region
where as it penetrates deeply into
the base as it is a lightly doped
region Similarly the collector-
base depletion layer penetrates
more into the base region and less
into the collector region The
emitter- base depletion layer
width is smaller than the that of
collector base depletion layer
Symbol –NPN, PNP transistor
Three types of circuit connections
 Modes of operation
Mode EB J BC J
Cutoff Reverse Reverse
Active Forward Reverse
Saturation Forward Forward
Working –NPN transistor (CB configuration)
CB configuration
CE Configuration
Relation between α and β
CC Configuration
BJT will satisfy KCL and KVL equation across its terminals.
Leakage Currents in a Transistor
Leakage Currents in a
Transistor
Consider CE Configuration, It
is found that despite IB = 0,
there is a leakage current from
collector to emitter. It is called
ICEO , the subscripts CEO
standing for ‘Collector to
Emitter with base Open’.
Thermal Runaway
For a CE circuit IC = βIB + (1 + β)ICO
The leakage current is extremely temperature-dependent. It almost
doubles for every 6°C rise in temperature in Ge and for every 10°C
rise in Si. Any increase in ICO is magnified (1 + β) times i.e. 300 to
500 times. Even a slight increase in ICO will affect IC considerably.
As IC increases, collector power dissipation increases which raises
the operating temperature that leads to further increase in IC. If this
succession of increases is allowed to continue, soon IC will increase
beyond safe operating value thereby damaging the transistor itself—
a condition known as thermal runaway.
 Transistor Static Characteristics

There are the curves which represents relationship between

different d.c. currents and voltages of a transistor. These are
helpful in studying the operation of a transistor when connected
in a circuit. The important characteristics of a transistor are :
1. Input characteristic,
2. Output characteristics
3. Current Transfer Characteristic
Common Base Test Circuit
Input characteristics:

VBE
Rin  @ cons tan tVCB
I E
Output characteristics:
Current Transfer Characteristic
Common Emitter Test Circuit
Input characteristics:
Output characteristics –CE

The value of output resistance

Rout (= Δ VCE / Δ IC) over the near horizontal
part of the characteristic varies from 10 k Ω
to 50 kΩ
Current Transfer Characteristic:
CC test circuit
Input characteristics

For CC configuration, VCB

is dependant on VCE;
VCB=VCE-VBE; For
constant IB , fixed VBE as
VCE increases, VCB
increases in input charact;
As VCB increases, IB is
decreased. (Discuss Early
effect)
Output characteristics – Similar to CE
Configuration