GEOLOGY 2B – Structural Geology – Lectures 4 and 5

Rheology
Lecture 5
 Contents
1. Parameters controlling rock deformation
2. Experiments on natural rocks
3. Role of temperature
4. Elastic behaviour
5. Plastic behaviour
6. Failure
7. Role of confining pressure
8. Role of pore fluid pressure
9. Role of strain rate
10.Examples of creep in nature
11.Role of composition
12.Role of rock anisotropy
13.Rheology of the lithosphere
 8. Role of pore fluid pressure

6)
4)
2)
1)
Triaxial testing apparatus
5)

3)

Physical parameters What can be changed in the apparatus

• Thermal structure 1) Temperature
• Burial depth (confining pressure) 2) Confining pressure
• Fluid content 3) Pore fluid pressure
• Amount of time 4) Strain rate
• Composition 5) Composition
6) Differential stress
 8. Role of pore fluid pressure
What is pore fluid pressure and how is it acting w.r.t. stress field in the rock?

𝑷𝒇 𝑷𝒄
Hydrostatic pressure Lithostatic pressure

Pore fluid pressure reduces the effective stress, which is the stress at grain
contacts in porous rocks.
The fluid pressure acts against the confining pressure. Very important for studying sediments.
8. Role of pore fluid pressure – experiment on a sandstone

• High Pf reduces yield strength and rupture strength.

• High Pf reduces ductility in the rock.
• High Pf decreases elastic component.
• Promotes fracturing.
 9. Role of strain rate
6)
4)
3)
1)
Triaxial testing apparatus
5)

2)

Physical parameters What can be changed in the apparatus

• Thermal structure 1) Temperature
• Burial depth (confining pressure) 2) Confining pressure
• Fluid content 3) Pore fluid pressure
• Amount of time 4) Strain rate
• Composition 5) Composition
6) Differential stress
 9. What is strain rate?
Strain rate: time interval it takes to accumulate a certain amount of strain.

Elongation
𝑙 −𝑙 𝑜 𝛿 𝑙
𝑒= = Strain rate e̊ or ε̊
𝑙0 𝑙0
ε̊ = e / t

e.g. If 30% finite longitudinal strain () is achieved in an experiment that lasts on hour,
the corresponding strain rate is: units ?

Pra
ctic The value of the strain rate changes as a function of
al 4 the time period over which finite strain accumulates.
9. Role of strain rate

How does variation in strain rate affects rock rheology?

→ The slower, the more ductile!
→ Decreasing strain rate promotes flow…
→ Fatigue of materials (e.g. metals in cars, etc.)
→ ε̊ acts against temperature (both promote crystal plastic
processes).
 9. Strain rate and viscosity

Viscosity, η, a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.

What happen to rocks when deform at low σd for a long time?

→ Rocks creep
Creep is strain that results from low differential
stresses applied for a very long time
I. Elastic strain
II. viscous strain – steady state
III.Fatigue – strain accelerates → Rupture

If we remove stress, permanent strain may remain !

10. Examples of creep in nature
Viscous strain
followed by
fatigue and
local failure
Examples of creep in nature
Salt domes (only 10 years)

ZAGROS MOUNTAINS
Salt tectonics:
From to
Tectonic processes:
From to
Summary of elastic, viscous and plastic deformation
Action of extrinsic factors on rock deformation
• Increase in temperature
 Promotes ductility
 Suppress fracturing
 Reduction in strength
• Increase in confining pressure
 Promotes ductility
 Suppress fracturing
 Increasing strength
• Increase fluid (pore fluid, pressure solution, hydrolytic weakening)
 Reduction in strength
• Strain rate
• High strain rate:
 Rocks are more resistant
 Tend to deform brittlely
• slow strain rate:
 Allow the rocks to creep, lowering the yield stress.
 Contents
1. Parameters controlling rock deformation
2. Experiments on natural rocks
3. Role of temperature
4. Elastic behaviour
5. Plastic behaviour
6. Failure
7. Role of confining pressure
8. Role of pore fluid pressure
9. Role of strain rate
10. Examples of creep in nature
11. Role of composition
12. Role of rock anisotropy
13. Rheology of the lithosphere
 Experiments on natural rocks

6)
4)
3)
1)
Triaxial testing apparatus
5)

2)

Physical parameters What can be changed in the apparatus

• Thermal structure 1) Temperature
• Burial depth (confining pressure) 2) Confining pressure
• Fluid content 3) Pore fluid pressure
• Amount of time 4) Strain rate
• Composition 5) Composition
6) Differential stress
 11. Role of composition
• Strength is stress that material can support before failure.

• Competency?
Competent: strong and deform in brittle manner
(= relative high yield point/stress/strength).
Incompetent: weak and deform in a ductile manner.

Rank according to relative competency the sedimentary and igneous/metamorphic

rocks written on paper.
LOW
Schist
Rock salt
Marble
Shale
Quartzite
However, the behaviour ofGneiss
Limestone a rock
Greywacke
highly depends on other parameters
Sandstone
Granite
Basalt
Dolomite
Gabbro
HIGH
 11. Role of composition

Boudinage structures in amphibolite layers (metamorphosed basaltic

dikes) in quartz schist, northern Norway Caledonides. The deformation is
strongly influenced by plastic deformation.

 The strength of various rock types, plotted against

confining pressure (burial depth).

 The data indicate that

• strength of the brittle crust increases with depth
Fossen (2010)
• strength depends on lithology (mineralogy).
12. Most rocks not isotropic… role of anisotropy on rock strength

vs
Role of anisotropy on rock strength

What is the role of anisotropy?

• Reduces strength of rock if
perpendicular to X (stretching axes).
• Mechanical role decreases with
increasing temperature.
 13. Rheology of the lithosphere

Tectonic plates: crust +upper mantle = lithosphere

 13. Rheology of the lithosphere
What are the most common minerals in the lithosphere?
• Quartz
• Feldspar
• Olivine

Differential stress Differential stress Differential stress

No def. Brittle deformation
field
Brittle – ductile transitio
Ductile
deformation
Depth

Depth

+ =

Depth
field
No rupture

Rheology of minerals depends on depth (controlling pressure and temperature)

Mineral T (°C) Mineral T (°C)
Halite 80–100 Feldspars ~ 450–500
Calcite ca. 200–250 Olivine ~ (700)–1000
Dolomite ~ 250–300 Opx ~ 700–800
Mica ~ 250 Cpx ~ 700–750
Quartz T ~ 280–300 Amphiboles ~ 650–750

T (°C) of brittle-ductile transition in minerals

Rheological stratification of continental lithosphere

Note that dry rocks (c) are considerably stronger (can sustain higher
differential stress) than wet rocks (b).
 Summary – take home messages
• Rheology and its implications for how rocks deform are important to keep in mind when we are studying
deformation structures in naturally deformed rocks.
• It is quite useful and fun to explore the concepts presented in this chapter during everyday activities, using
rubber, plastics, modeling putty, clay, springs, plaster and many other things.
• Elastic theory is used for relatively small strains, from the millimeter scale to lithospheric scale. An example of the
latter is the elastic subsidence of the lithosphere caused by ice sheets up to several kilometers thick during
regional glaciations. The fact that the lithosphere rebounds when the ice melts tells us that it can be modeled as
an elastic plate, and the rate at which it rebounds tells us something about the mantle viscosity and elastic
properties of the lithosphere.
• Elastic deformation of rocks reaches a critical stress or strain level (yield point) where permanent deformation
starts to accumulate.
• Mechanically, plastic deformation occurs when permanent strain keeps accumulating under a constant stress
level.
• More generally, plastic deformation is the deformation of rock by intracrystalline (non-cataclastic) flow.

• The simple model of a predominantly plastically flowing lower crust overlain by a strong, brittle upper crust and
underlain by a stronger upper mantle is a simple but useful first approximation to the large-scale rheological
stratification of the crust.
 Terminology – Rheology
• Brittle behaviour
• Brittle deformation mechanisms
• Brittle-ductile transition
• Brittle-plastic transition • Plastic deformation mechanisms
• Competency • Strain rate
• Confining pressure • Strength
• Ductile behaviour • Viscosity
• Elasticity • Viscous behaviour
• Elastic behaviour • Yield stress
• Elastic deformation mechanisms • Young’s modulus
• Fracturing
• Plastic behaviour
• Plasticity