COLLEGE OF MEDICINE AND

ALLIED HEALTH SCIENCES-

COMAHS UNIVERSITY OF SIERRA
LEONE
FACULTY OF BASIC MEDICAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
PREMED/PRE-PHARMACY PROGRAM
 PHYSICS
LECTURE NOTES

FOR
PRE-MED 1 & PRE-PHARMACY
 MEASUREMENT OF HEAT

We have seen in previous lessons that energy is one of the fundamental concepts of
physics. Heat is a type of energy transfer that is caused by a temperature difference.
As we learned earlier in this section , heat transfer is the movement of energy from
one place or material to another as a result of a difference in temperature. Heat
transfer is fundamental to such everyday activities as home heating and cooking, as
well as many industrial processes.
 Internal Energy and Heat

A thermal system has internal energy (also called thermal energy), which is the
sum of the mechanical energies of its molecules. A system’s internal energy is
proportional to its temperature.
If two objects at different temperatures are brought into contact with each other,
energy is transferred from the hotter to the colder object until the bodies reach
thermal equilibrium (that is, they are at the same temperature). No work is done
by either object because no force acts through a distance, these observations
reveal that heat is energy transferred spontaneously due to a temperature
difference. The Figure below shows an example of heat transfer.
Since heat is a form of energy, its SI unit is the joule (J). Another common unit of energy often
used for heat is the calorie (cal), defined as the energy needed to change the temperature of 1.00
g of water by 1.00 °C —specifically, between 14.5 °C and 15.5 °C , since there is a slight
temperature dependence. Also commonly used is the kilocalorie (kcal), which is the energy
needed to change the temperature of 1.00 kg of water by 1.00 °C .
 Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat It is also possible to change the temperature of a
substance by doing work, which transfers energy into or out of a system. This
realization helped establish that heat is a form of energy. James Prescott Joule
(1818–1889) performed many experiments to establish the mechanical equivalent
of heat—the work needed to produce the same effects as heat transfer. In the units
used for these two quantities, the value for this equivalence is 1.000 kcal = 4186 J
 Heat Capacity

The heat capacity, C, of a substance is defined as the amount of energy needed

to raise the temperature of that substance by .

If energy Q produces a change of temperature of , then;

 Specific Heat

Specific heat, c, is the heat capacity per unit mass.

If energy Q transfers to a sample of a substance of mass m and the

temperature changes by , then the specific heat is given as;

Where Q is the quantity of heat energy, m is the mass of the body, is the
change in temperature and c is a constant known as the specific heat
capacity of the body.
 Specific Heat

The specific heat is essentially a measure of how thermally insensitive a

substance is to the addition of energy.

The greater the substance’s specific heat, the more energy that must be added to
a given mass to cause a particular temperature change. Thus, the equation is
often written in terms of Q as,
Substance Specific heat capacity in

Aluminum 900

Brass 380

Copper 390

Iron 460

Alcohol 2520

Glycerin 2430

Ice 2100

Mercury 140

Water 4200
 EXAMPLE 1

A copper rod with heat capacity 585 is heated until it temperature

changes from 35 to 80 Calculate the quantity of heated supplied to
the rod. If the specific heat capacity of copper is 390 . Determine
the mass of the rod.
 solution

Let mass of rod be m (kg)

 EXAMPLE 2

A quantity of hot water at 92°C and another cold one at

12°C. How much kilogram of each one is needed to make an
800 liter of water bath at temperature of 35°C.
 Solution
Assume the mass of hot water and cold one is ,

of water is equivalent to 800 kg, So

From the conservation of energy, we have;

 Solution
From which we have,

But,

Hence,
 example 3
a. What is meant by the statement that the specific heat capacity of water
is 4200 ?
b. Calculate the temperature change when 1000 J of heat is supplied to
100 g of water.
 solution
a. The statement means that 4200 joules of heat energy is required to raise
the temperature of 1kg of water by 1 K.

b. Let the temperature change be.

from
 Specific heat capacity by method of mixture

 The calorimeter is an apparatus used in experiments that involves the exchange of heat
between two bodies at different temperatures.

 The most common method employed in calorimeter experiment is known as the method of
mixtures.

 In this mixture, a hot substance is mixed with a cold substance until both reach the same
temperature.

 It follows that the quantity of heat loss by the hot substance must be equal to the heat gained
by the cold substance.

 This assumes that no heat is loss to the surroundings.

 PRECAUTIONS

 To reduce losses due to conduction the calorimeter is surrounded with a

poor conductor, e.g. cotton wool or felt. This is called lagging the
calorimeter.
 Losses due to convection and evaporations are reduced by providing the
calorimeter with a lid ( containing holes to take a thermometer and a
stirrer).
 Heat loss by radiation is reduced by polishing the outside of the
calorimeter
 Experiment to determine the specific heat
capacity of a solid by method of mixtures

The solid in the form of a brass or copper block is

weighed, tied to a string and left for some minutes in a
beaker of boiling water. The calorimeter together with
the stirrer is first weighed empty and reweighed when
is about two-third full of water.
The initial temperature of the water is read with the
thermometer. After the solid has stayed in the boiling
water for 15 minutes , it is quickly transferred into the
water in the calorimeter. The calorimeter is covered
with the lid, and the water is gently stirred to ensure a
uniform distribution of temperature. The highest
steady temperature of the mixture is read and recorded.
The specific hcapacity of the solid is calculated as follows:
Mass of solid = kg
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer = kg
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer + water = kg
Initial temperature of water + calorimeter =
Final temperature of mixture =
Temperature of boiling water = 100
Specific heat capacity of solid =
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200
Let the specific heat capacity of calorimeter material =
Heat lost by solid In cooling from 100 to final temperature of mixture ()
= eat
Heat gained by water =
Neglecting any heat losses to the surroundings we write:
Heat loss by solid = heat gained by water + gained by calorimeter and
stirrer.
= + ( -)

since , , , and are known, can be calculated from the above equation.
 Experiment to determine the specific heat
capacity of a liquid by method of mixtures

The experiment is carried out exactly as the previous experiment above,

but this time we use the liquid of unknown specific heat capacity instead
of water in the calorimeter, and we use a solid whose specific heat
capacity is known. The specific heat capacity of the liquid is calculated as
below:
Let the specific heat capacity of the solid =
Let the specific heat capacity of calorimeter =
Let the specific heat capacity of liquid =
Mass of solid = kg
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer = kg
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer + liquid = kg
Mass of liquid = ( - ) kg
Initial temperature of liquid and calorimeter =
Initial Temperature of solid in boiling water = 100
Final temperature of mixture =
Heat lost by solid In cooling from 100 to = ( 100 - ) J

heat gained by liquid + heat gained by calorimeter + stirrer.

( - )( -) + ( -)
Neglecting heat lost to the surroundings we can write:

Heat lost by solid = total heat gained by liquid and calorimeter + stirrer.
( 100 - ) = ( - )( -) + ( -)

since , , , , and are known, can be calculated from the above equation.
 Experiment To Measure The Specific Heat
Capacity Of A Solid By The Electrical Method

The specific heat capacity of a solid in the form

of a metal block can be determined by an
electrical method.
Two holes are bored in the block, after which the
block is weighed. A thermometer and an
electrical heater are inserted in each of the holes.
A little oil in each hole helps to establish a
thermal contact with the block. The metal block
is surrounded with a lagged jacket to reduce heat
losses.
The initial temperature of the block is noted and the electrical heater is switched on and
current allow to flow for some time until the temperature rises by 15. The exact time of
flow of a known current is measured with a stop-clock, and the initial and final
temperatures of the metal block are measured by the thermometer.
The specific heat capacity is calculated as follows:
Heat supplied by the current = Q = Ivt joules.
Heat required to raise the temperature of block by = mc
Assuming no heat loss to the surroundings, we have

C=
Experiment to determine the specific heat capacity
of a liquid by the electrical method

The apparatus for this experiment is as shown in

the figure below. A plastic container is first
weighed and reweighed when about two-third
full of liquid (e.g. water). The ammeter,
voltmeter, and heating coil are connected in the
circuit as shown. A plastic stirrer and container
are fitted into the container through holes in the
wooden lid. The current is switched on after the
initial temperature of the liquid has been
reduced. The rheostat is adjusted to give a
suitable steady current for about 3 minutes .
The liquid is stirred gently while being heated. The final temperature is read after the
current is switched off.
The specific heat capacity of the liquid is calculated as follows:
Mass of liquid = m kg
Initial temperature of liquid =
Final temperature of liquid =
Current flowing in current = I A
Voltage across heating coil = V volts
Time of flow of current = t seconds
Let the specific heat capacity of liquid = c
Rise in temperature = )
Heat gained by liquid = mc) joules.
Electrical energy supplied to liquid = Ivt joules.
Since heat gained by liquid = electrical energy supplied, we can write
mc) = Ivt

c=
 Example 4

The hot water tap of a bath delivers water at 85 at a rate of 8 kg/min. the
cold water tap of the bath delivers water at 30 at the rate of 20 kg if both
taps are left on for 5 minutes, calculate the final temperature of the bath
water, ignoring heat losses to the surroundings.
 Solution
Let the final temperature be
Mass of hot liquid deliver in 5 minutes =
Mass of cold liquid delivered in 5 minutes =.
Heat lost by cold water in cooling from 85 to = J
Where c is the specific heat capacity of water.
Heat gained by the cold water in warming from 30 to = J
Since heat gained = heat lost, we have:
= =
45.7
 Example 4

A 0.500-kg aluminum pan on a stove and 0.250 L of water in it are heated

from 20.0 °C to 80.0 °C .

(a) How much heat is required?

(b) What percentage of the heat is used to raise the temperature of (i) the
pan and (ii) the water?
 Solution

We can assume that the pan and the water are always at the same temperature. When
you put the pan on the stove, the temperature of the water and that of the pan are
increased by the same amount. We use the equation for the heat transfer for the given
temperature change and mass of water and aluminum. The specific heat values for water
and aluminum are given in the table above.

First calculate the temperature difference:

 Solution

Calculate the mass of water since the density of water is 1000 , 1 L of water has a
mass of 1 kg, and the mass of 0.250 L of water is .

Calculate the heat transferred to the water:

Calculate the heat transferred to the aluminum:

Find the total transferred heat: +

 EXAMPLE 5

A piece of copper weighing 400g is heated to 100 and then quickly

transferred to a copper calorimeter of mass 10g containing 100g of liquid
of unknown specific heat capacity at If the final temperature of the
mixture is
Calculate the specific heat capacity c of the liquid. ( take specific heat
capacity of copper = 390 J/kg/K)
 Solution
Mass of copper = 400g = 0.4 kg.
Mass of copper calorimeter = 10g = 0.01 kg
Mass of liquid = 100g = 0.1 kg
Initial temperature of copper piece = 100 .
Initial temperature of liquid and calorimeter = 30
Final temperature of mixture = 50
Heat lost by copper = 0.4 x 390 x (100 – 50) = 7800 J
Heat gained by liquid = 0.1 x c x (50 – 30) = 2c J
Heat gained by calorimeter = 0.01 x 390 x (50 – 30) = 78 J,
Total heat gained = heat lost.
2c + 78 = 7800
 PHASE CHANGES
Phase transitions play an important theoretical and practical role in the study of heat flow. In
melting (or “fusion”), a solid turns into a liquid; the opposite process is freezing. In
evaporation, a liquid turns into a gas; the opposite process is condensation. A substance melts or
freezes at a temperature called its melting point, and boils (evaporates rapidly) or condenses at
its boiling point. These temperatures depend on pressure. High pressure favours the denser
form, so typically, high pressure raises the melting point and boiling point, and low pressure
lowers them. For example, the boiling point of water is 100 °C at 1.00 atm. At higher pressure,
the boiling point is higher, and at lower pressure, it is lower. The main exception is the melting
and freezing of water.
 Phase Diagrams
The phase of a given substance depends on the pressure and temperature. Thus, plots of pressure versus temperature
showing the phase in each region provide considerable insight into thermal properties of substances. Such a pT graph is
called a phase diagram.
The Figure below shows the phase diagram for water. Using the graph, if you know the pressure and temperature, you can
determine the phase of water.
The solid curves—boundaries between phases—indicate phase transitions, that is, temperatures and pressures at which
the phases coexist. For example, the boiling point of water is 100 °C at 1.00 atm. As the pressure increases, the boiling
temperature rises gradually to 374 °C at a pressure of 218 atm. The boiling point curve ends at a certain point called the
critical point—that is, a critical temperature, above which the liquid and gas phases cannot be distinguished; the
substance is called a supercritical fluid. Critical pressure is the pressure of the critical point.
 Phase Diagrams

Similarly, the curve between the solid and liquid regions in the Fig. gives
the melting temperature at various pressures. For example, the melting point
is 0 °C at 1.00 atm, as expected. Water has the unusual property that ice is
less dense than liquid water at the melting point, so at a fixed temperature,
you can change the phase from solid (ice) to liquid (water) by increasing the
pressure. That is, the melting temperature of ice falls with increased
pressure, as the phase diagram shows. The triple point is a combination of
temperature and pressure at which ice, liquid water, and water vapor can
coexist stably—that is, all three phases exist in equilibrium. For water, the
triple point occurs at 273.16 K (0.01 °C) and 611.2 Pa.
 Phase Change and Latent Heat
So far, we have discussed heat transfers that cause temperature change. However, in a
phase transition, heat transfer does not cause any temperature change. For example,
consider the addition of heat to a sample of ice at −20 °C (as shown in the Fig.) and
atmospheric pressure. The temperature of the ice rises linearly, absorbing heat at a
constant rate of 2090 J/kg/ºC until it reaches 0 °C. Once at this temperature, the ice begins
to melt and continues until it has all melted, absorbing 333 kJ/kg of heat. The temperature
remains constant at 0 °C during this phase change. Once all the ice has melted, the
temperature of the liquid water rises, absorbing heat at a new constant rate of 4186 J/kg ·
ºC. At 100 °C, the water begins to boil. The temperature again remains constant during
this phase change while the water absorbs 2256 kJ/kg of heat and turns into steam. When
all the liquid has become steam, the temperature rises again, absorbing heat at a rate of
2020 J/kg/ºC . If we started with steam and cooled it to make it condense into liquid water
and freeze into ice, the process would exactly reverse, with the temperature again constant
during each phase transition.
 Where does the heat added during melting or boiling go, considering
that the temperature does not change until the transition is complete?

Energy is required to melt a solid, because the attractive forces between the molecules in
the solid must be broken apart, so that in the liquid, the molecules can move around at
comparable kinetic energies; thus, there is no rise in temperature. Energy is needed to
vaporize a liquid for similar reasons. Conversely, work is done by attractive forces when
molecules are brought together during freezing and condensation. That energy must be
transferred out of the system, usually in the form of heat, to allow the molecules to stay
together. Thus, condensation occurs in association with cold objects—the glass in the
Figure below is an example.
Condensation forms on this glass of iced
tea because the temperature of the nearby
air is reduced. The air cannot hold as much
water as it did at room temperature, so
water condenses. Energy is released when
the water condenses, speeding the melting
of the ice in the glass.
The energy involved in a phase change depends on the number of bonds or force pairs
and their strength. The number of bonds is proportional to the number of molecules and
thus to the mass of the sample. The energy per unit mass required to change a
substance from the solid phase to the liquid phase, or released when the substance
changes from liquid to solid, is known as the heat of fusion. The energy per unit mass
required to change a substance from the liquid phase to the vapor phase is known as
the heat of vaporization. The strength of the forces depends on the type of molecules.
The heat Q absorbed or released in a phase change in a sample of mass m is given by;
where the latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporization are material
constants that are determined experimentally. (Latent heats are also called
latent heat coefficients and heats of transformation.) These constants are
“latent,” or hidden, because in phase changes, energy enters or leaves a
system without causing a temperature change in the system, so in effect, the
energy is hidden.
 Example 6

Three ice cubes are used to chill a soda at 20 °C with mass . The ice is at 0
°C and each ice cube has a mass of 6.0 g. Assume that the soda is kept in a
foam container so that heat loss can be ignored and that the soda has the
same specific heat as water. Find the final temperature when all ice has
melted.
 Solution

The ice cubes are at the melting temperature of 0 °C. Heat is transferred from the soda
to the ice for melting. Melting yields water at 0 °C, so more heat is transferred from
the soda to this water until the water plus soda system reaches thermal equilibrium.
The heat transferred to the ice is given as;

The heat given off by the soda is;

 Solution
Since no heat is lost,

Solve for the unknown quantity ;

 Example 7

What quantity of heat will be necessary to change 2.0 kg of ice at 0 to

water at 10. Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36 x , and specific
heat capacity of water = 4200 .
 Solution
In this example we require heat to first melt the ice to water at 0 and heat to raise the
temperature of water from 0 to 10 .

Heat required to raise the temperature of 2 kg of water from 0 ℃ to 10 ℃

Heat required to raise the temperature of 2 kg of water from 0 ℃ to 10 ℃ = 2 x

4200 x ( 10 – 0 ) J = 8.4 x = 0.84 x J

total heat needed = ( 6.772 + 0.84) J

= 7.56 x J
MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER

Just as interesting as the effects of heat transfer on a system are the methods by
which it occurs. Whenever there is a temperature difference, heat transfer occurs. It
may occur rapidly, as through a cooking pan, or slowly, as through the walls of a
picnic ice chest. So many processes involve heat transfer that it is hard to imagine a
situation where no heat transfer occurs. Yet every heat transfer takes place by only
three methods; Conduction, Convection and Radiation.
MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER
 Conduction

 It is an exchange of kinetic energy between microscopic

particles by collisions.
 Less energetic particles gain energy during collisions with more
energetic particles.
 Rate of conduction depends upon the characteristics of the
substance.
 Convection

movement of a substance.

 When the movement results from

differences in density, it is

 Energy transferred by the

called natural convection.

 When the movement is forced by a

fan or a pump, it is called forced convection

 Radiation
 Radiation does not require physical contact
 All objects radiate energy continuously in the form of
electromagnetic waves due to thermal vibrations of their
molecules.
 Evaporation

 The method of heat loss that of us familiar with is the evaporation of

sweat.
 Under extreme conditions of heat and exercise ,a man may sweat more
than 1 liter of liquid per hour.
 Since each gram of water that evaporates carries with it the heat of
vaporization 580 calories , the evaporation of 1 liter carries with it 580
Kcal.
 The sweat must evaporate from the skin in order to give the cooling
effect.