ORGANIZATION

DEVELOPMENT
 INTRODUCTION

In a typical university, administration is not generally regarded as an academic

discipline. Educational administration is, generally, taught within the framework of
the school of education sometimes comprising a department of the school but often
less formally structured and known simply as a "program.
 The administrator of an organization must have a high level of technical
knowledge of the area to be administered.
 The director of athletics must have a high level of competence in teaching
physical education

 Whatever the art or science of administration includes, it is best taught and

learned through practical application.

 Administration, as a body of knowledge and practice, is neither an academic

discipline nor a profession.
1.1 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS A
BEGINNING
 In one sense, administration is one of the most ancient of all human endeavors.
There is still little question, for example, that the Egyptians organized and
administered vast complex enterprises that required sophisticated planning,
complex organization, skilled leadership, and detailed coordination at least two
thousand years before the birth of Christ. To put it in perspective, it has been
estimated that the task of constructing the Pyramids which took one hundred
thousand men twenty years to complete -- was equivalent to administering an
organization three times the size of the Shell Oil Company
 The idea that administration is an activity that can be studied and taught
separately from the context of what is being administered

 The belief that decisions about the policies and purposes of government belong to
the realm of political action but that these decisions are best implemented by cin
servants whose jobs are not dependent on the whims of politics and who are free
to develop good administrative procedures.
1.2 IMPACT OF THE INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
 Frederick W. Taylor is a name well known to many students of administration. He
had been an engineer at the Midvale and the Bethlehem steel companies at the
close of the 1800s and the early 1900s became one of the top engineering
consultants in American industry.
Frederick W. Taylor four principles of
scientific management
 Eliminate the guesswork of rule-of-thumb approach to deciding how each worker
is to doing his job by adopting scientific measurements of breaking the job into a
series of small, related tasks
 Use more scientific, systematic methods for selecting workers and training them
for specific jobs
 Establish the concept that there is a clear division of responsibility between
management and workers. Management is doing the goal setting, planning, and
supervising, while workers are executing the required tasks
 Establish the discipline whereby management sets the objectives and the workers
cooperate in achieving them.
 Taylor's "principles of scientific management" were aimed primarily at lowering
the unit cost of factory production, although he and his followers claimed that
these principles could be applied universally; they became almost an obsession in
the press and throughout our society.
 In practice, Taylor's ideas led to time-and-motion studies, rigid discipline on the
job, concentration on the tasks to be performed with minimal interpersonal
contacts between workers
 At the same time that Taylor's ideas and their application were having such
enormous impact on American life; Henri Fayol, a French industrialist was
working out some powerful ideas of his own.
 Fayol was a topnotch management executive. Some of the ideas advanced by
Fayol contributed to the growth of thought in administration. He believed that a
trained administrative group was essential to improving the operations of the
organization.
 Ideas of Henri Fayol

 Unlike Taylor, who tended to view workers as extensions of factory machinery,

Fayol focused his attention on the manager rather than on the worker
 He clearly separated the processes of administration from other operations in the
organizations, such as production. Administration is separate and distinct from
other operating groups in the organization
 He emphasized the common elements of the process of administration in different
organizations.
 1.3 THE RISE OF CLASSICAL
ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY, 1910 -
1945
 These three individuals---Taylor, Fayol, and Weber---were giants in the pre-World
War I years and led the way in the early efforts to master the problems of
managing modern organizations. Generally, the period from 1910 to 1935 can be
thought of as the era of scientific management. The term "Scientific management"
had a profound and long- lasting impact upon the ways in which schools were
organized and administered.
ORGANIZATIONAL CONCEPTS OF
CLASSICAL THEORY
 Classical organizational theorists have sought to identify and describe some set of
fixed "principles" (in the sense of "rules") that would establish the basis for
management. The best known of these dealt with organizational structure.
 The Idea Of Mary Parker Follett

 The work of Mary Parker Follett was unique in the development of management
thought. Her ideas were rooted in the classical traditions of organizational theory
but matured in such a way that spanned the gap between scientific management
and the early industrial psychologists.
1.4 THE HUMAN RELATIONS
MOVEMENTS, 1935- 1950
 In time, as the principles of scientific management were applied to industry with
greater care, a need to be more precise about the effect of human factors on
production efficiency was felt. The Western Electric Company was one of the
more enlightened industrial employers of the time and cooperated with the
National Research Council in a simple experiment designed to determine the
optimum level of illumination in a shop for maximum production efficiency.
 One of Taylor's "principles" suggested strongly that there would be such a
relationship, the study raised more questions than answers.
 1. Do employees actually become tires?
 2. Are pauses for rest desirable?
 3. Is a shorter working day desirable?
 4. What is the attitude of employees toward their work and toward the company?
 5. What is the effect of changing the type of working equipment?
 6. Why does production decrease in the afternoon?
New concepts were now available to the
administrator to use in practice.

 1 morale
 2 group dynamics
 3 democratic supervision
 4 personnel relations
 5 behavioral concepts of motivation.
 The human relations movement emphasized human and interpersonal factors in
administering the affairs of organizations. Supervisors, in particular, drew heavily
on human relations concepts, placing stress on such notions as "democratic"
procedures, "involvement," motivational techniques, and the sociometry of
leadership.
 Jacob Moreno, who developed and refined the techniques of sociometric analysis.
 Robert Bales, who developed a systematic technique for analyzing the patterns of
interaction between the members of a group.
 Leadership has long been a subject of great interest to those concerned with
organizations, and social scientists were not long in realizing that leadership is not
something that "great people" or individuals with formal legal authority do to their
subordinates.
 1.5 THE ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR MOVEMENT, 1950 -1975
 Classical or bureaucratic concepts of organizations are sometimes said to focus on
organizations without people. There is such great emphasis on the formal
organizational structure and the highly rational logic of hierarchical control that
people are often viewed as fitting into that structure on the organization's terms
 Human relations concepts, on the other hand, are often said to deal with people
without organizations. This is due to the fact that early students of the dynamics
of human behavior in groups often conducted their research in small groups rather
than in work-oriented organizations. During the early attempts to apply human
relations concepts to well-structured organizations, a great deal of attention was
given to informal aspects of the organization which had little impact on the formal
organization
 Between 1937 and 1942, three
significant books appeared
 The first of these books was Chester Barnard's The Functions of the Executive,
which appeared in 1938. Barnard, a vice president of the New Jersey Bell
Telephone Company, selected and integrated concepts from
 Second book (1939) *Management and the Worker, by Felix J. Roetlisberger
and William J. Dickson. These two scholars presented a new view of the dynamic
mutual interaction between the formal organization and the informal
organizations (the latter being the informal social structure that exists among
workers).
 Third book (1947) * Herbert A. Simon's Administrative Behavior, which was
published in 1947. Even the title, which its emphasis on behavior. foreshadowed a
fresh approach to understanding furnistrative practice.
Human relations and organizational
behavior
 The term "human relations" is a broad one that refers to the interactions between
people in all kinds of situations in which they seek, through mutual action, to
achieve some purpose. Thus, it can properly be applied to two people seeking to
develop a happy and productive life together, a social club, a business firm,
schools and, indeed, entire governments and even whole societies.
 Organizational Behavior" is a much narrower and precise term that falls under
the term human relations. "Organizational Behavior" is a much narrower and
precise term that falls under the term human relations.
 Educational Administration Stirs

 Educational administration was scarcely affected by the evolution of

administration as a field of study until the middle of this century, mainly because
the teachings of educational administrators were sequestered from the current
mainstream of scholarly thought and research
1.6 EMERGING DEVELOPMENTS IN
ORGANIZATIONAL THOUGHT, 1975
- PRESENT
 To understand the behavior of people at work in educational organizations, the
central problem confronting educational administrators because administration is
defined as "working with and through other people, individually and in groups, to
achieve organizational goals".
 To have a better understanding that schools, as organizations, are complex and
confusing places that are filled with ambivalence, ambiguity, and that uncertainty.
 Donald Schon, describes what he calls a "crisis of confidence in professional
knowledge“
Technical solutions to the problems of
education
 management by objectives
 diagnostic-
 perspective teaching
 planning-programming-budgeting systems
 formalized approaches to teaching (such as the Hunter Model)
 And bossed with the development of "programs" to meet every conceivable
problem confronting the schools. Those problems are more often perceived and
understood in terms of our own values, culture and background.

 Important educational problems are typically messy problems;

 ill-defined
 ill-understood
 complicated
 And as in the case of malnutrition for children, there are many ways of framing a
response. But most people are limited in their ability to make sense of problems.
 On 1975, organizational thought took a major turn away from formal theorizing to
human dimensions organization. This shift was caused by a combination of
several forces that came together simultaneously.
1.7 COLLAPSE OF TRADITIONAL
ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY
 The period from the early 1950s into mid-1970s produced a great outpouring of
theory and research in educational administration,such that the era was often
called The Theory Movement in educational administration. However by 1970s
concern was expressed that the theories and the research that had been
spawned,did not fully describe schools was they were experienced by people in
them.By 1974,T.Barr Greenfield articulated serious concern about then-existing
organizational theory that had been developing among both practitioners and a
growing member of scholars.This pervasive discrepancy between the academic
view of the world and that of the practitioner may well explain the lack of
enthusiasm that practitioners chronically express toward the preparation that they
have received at university.
 Principals describe concrete everyday experiences while academic emphasize
theory and abstract relationships
 Principals communicate through metaphors example and stories while academics
use models and the language of science.
 Principal are aware of limits on rationality while defining problems in formal
terms.
 1.8 RISE IN QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH METHODS
 In the 1980s, a notable shift occurred in educational research as scholars moved
away from traditional theoretical approaches and quasi-experimental methods.
 Embracing qualitative or ethnographic methods, researchers immersed themselves
in schools, generating narrative descriptions that unveiled the complexities and
chaos inherent in organizational life
 This qualitative approach became pivotal in the educational reform movement,
replacing sparse statistical studies with rich, insightful accounts of human
experiences. This shift marked a departure from logical positivism towards a new
understanding of organizational behavior in schools
1.9 THE CONCEPT OF THEORIES
MIDDLE-RANGE
 THE IDEAS OF JAMES D. THOMPSON, In 1967, James D. Thompson
described many new insights into the nature of organizations that laid the basis for
a new impetus in organizational theorizing in the 9170s. He saw that the
fundamental problem confronting organizations was uncertainty and
consequently, described coping with uncertainty as the foundation of
administration
 Thompson described the organization as having a "technical core" in which the
actual work activities (such as teaching) are performed, plus "boundary spanning
units". These boundary spanning units are in direct contact with the organizations
in that environment and their critical function is to deal with the uncertainties in
that environment.
The Concept of Organized Anarchies

 Traditional structuralist approaches of classical theory emphasize the logic and

order of human social systems, viewing the decision-making processes
 In education, neoclassical (or neoscientific) approaches to organization and
management that emerged in the 1960s sought to apply these concepts in newer,
more sophisticated ways
 Their goals are not specific and clear. Indeed, the goals of educational
organization seem to shift often, are frequently in conflict with one another, are
different for different groups of participants, and are difficult to translate into
clear-cut programs of action.
 Their technology is unclear and not well understood. A common dilemma in
public schools, for example, is for teachers and supervisors to find methods and
materials that will assure that students who are not learning well can be
"reached".
 Participation in them is fluid. Students move in and out, teachers and
administrators come and go, parents out, to involved sporadically, and others in
the community take interest in the schools when the spirit moves them.
Educational Organizations As Loosely
Coupled System
 Commonly, we are apt to think of and describe a school system or a school in
classical structural terms
 Students of organization have recognized for quite some time, however, that
school systems and school are in fact characterized by structural looseness:
schools in district have considerable autonomy and latitude, and teachers in their
classrooms are under only very general control and direction of the principal.
Organizational Culture as A Bearer Of
Authority
 Like all workplaces, an educational organization--each school and each
university-is characterized by a distinctive organizational culture. Organizational
culture refers to the norms that inform people what is acceptable and what are
not, the dominant values that the organization cherishes above others, the basic
assumptions and belief's that are shared by members of the organization and the
philosophy that guides the organizations in dealing with its employees and its
clients.
 Contingency Approaches

 There is little likelihood that the hope, nurtured for many years among students of
administrations, of discovering a set of related concepts that will lead us to the
one best way of organizing, leading, motivating, and administering will be
realized in the near future.
 Should an organization be highly structured in the formal sense? Or is it better to
use less rigid, more loosely coupled forms of organization? We are not certain that
there is a general single answer to such questions today because it seems clear that
it is contingent upon specific circumstances.
 1.10 NON-THEORITICAL
INFLUENCES ON
 ORGANIZATIONAL THOUGHT
The text discusses non-theoretical influences on organizational thought in the context
of educational organizations.
 It emphasizes the effective schools research, highlighting five basic assumptions of
effective schools.

Five basic assumptions. These assumptions focus on teaching as the central purpose;
 responsibility for the overall environment
 holistic treatment of schools
 importance of staff attitudes
 behaviors
 acceptance of responsibility for students' academic success.
 The effective schools concept shifts responsibility from students to schools,
emphasizing the impact of school culture on academic performance. Key
characteristics include strong leadership, high expectations, emphasis on basic
skills, an orderly environment, systematic evaluation, and increased time for
teaching and learning tasks
 KEY CHARACTERSTICS

 strong leadership
 high expectations
 emphasis on basic skills
 an orderly environment
 systematic evaluation
 increased time for teaching
 learning tasks
 The text also introduces an emerging approach to effective schools, outlining
thirteen characteristics divided into quickly implementable and more complex
ones that require sustained effort for long-term improvement
 1.10 THE SCHOOL REFORM
MOVEMENT
 The school reform movement ,which got under way in the early 1980's with the publication of A
National at Risk.The Imperative for Educational Reform,had little connection with either the new
developments in organizational though or effective school research.
 The First wave of School Reform, Many observes describe the school reform movement of the
1980's as unfolding in two waves. The so-called first wave of reform was comprise largely of an
antonishing increase in regulatory mandates imposed upon the schools by the states.
 By the 1990s,however many thoughtful observes were expressing alarm that such regulatory
approaches with their requisite detailed top-down bureaucratic administration of regulations were in
fact,counterproductive in two major ways.
 First,regulatory approaches were driving schools to new heights of mindless rigidity that often fails
to take into consideration the specific individual educational needs of students and the specific
circumstances of the schol that they attended.
 Second,a growing body of research made clear those teachers,highly qualified and motivated to do
the best for their students,were increasingly frustrated by their growing inability to exercise their
professional judgements in a school environment that was becoming steadily bureaucratized.
The Second Wave Of School Reform

 The old system, which the first wave of reform had taken for granted, saw
teachers as low-level functionaries of public hierarchical bureaucracies who were
accountable to officials in the higher education "above" them in those
bureaucracies, and who, in turn, are accountable to the public through the political
mechanisms of legislatures. Indeed, this structure of public schools is so taken for
granted that we are not aware of how powerfully it influences the relationships of
the players and in turn influences how people behave when they are at work in the
schools.
 The second wave of school reform took a remarkably different view: it recognizes
the professional role of teachers, as contrasted with the bureaucratic role.