Nuclear Physics

Radioactivity (boom boom)

 Radioactivity – The emission of radiation from a
particle due to the spontaneous disintegration
of atomic nuclei.

Isotope - A species of the same element.

Terms To Half Life - The time taken for the quantity of a

substance to be reduced to half of its value
Remember through radiactive decay.

Negatron – negatively charged electron.

Positron - positively charged electron.

(antimatter)
STRUCTURE
OF THE
ATOM
 What does the
atom consist of?

• Nucleus consist of neutrons and protons.

• Electrons orbit the nucleus at different energy
levels.
neutrons are neutral in charge
protons are positively charged
electrons are negatively charged
 Reading an Element
from the Periodic
Table of Elements
Example: Helium

• Bottom number tells you the

number of protons that an atom
has (Atomic number).
• Top Number tells us the sum of
protons and neutron in the nucleus.
(Relative atomic mass Ar)
 • The mass number
can be different for
the same element.
• The atomic number
is always the same
Isotopes •
for an element.
Number of
neutrons differ.
 • - here helium has one more neutron than

• From this it can be deduced that the mass of a

proton and a neutron is 1 atomic mass unit (U).
Isotopes 1U = 1.67 x 10-27 kg mass of a proton/ neutron
9.1 x 10-31 kg mass of an electron
1.6x10-19 C charge of electron/proton
 • Stable

unstable (likes to decay)

Isotopes • When the nucleus decays a new element is
formed
Types of Nuclear Radiation

Alpha, beta, gamma

 Alpha Decay ()

Occurs generally with heavy elements

Eg.
e.g. Uranium Break down to Thorium and Alpha

• Helium nucleus is released.

• The atomic mass decreases by 4.
• The atomic number decreases by 2.
 Properties of  radiation

 radiation is
stopped by paper/ Low penetration. Highly ionizing.
few cm of air.
 Uses

SMOKE CANCER HEATING DEVICES.

DETECTORS. TREATMENT.
 Beta () Decay

Occurs with lighter elements

eg.
e.g.
+
Mass does not change but the atomic number does.
A proton is gained
A neutron is lost
Neutron turns into a proton
As it does this it gives off a fast moving electron.
 is a fast moving electron.
 Properties

Stopped by a few mm of
Aluminum.
Beta particles with energy
Medium penetrating. Medium ionizing.
of about 0.5 Mev have a
range of about 1 metre in
air.
 Uses
• Paper mills to check thickness.
• Beta light.
• Betavoltaics (nuclear batteries).
 Questions

Determine the element after alpha decay

+
Determine the element before alpha decay
+
Determine the element before Beta decay
+
 Answers
+

+
 Gamma Radiation 

• Occurs during the settling process of a

radioactive nuclei after another form of
radioactive decay occurs.
• Raw energy is released (photon).
 Properties

High energy
Very high Reduced by lead or
Low ionizing power. frequency
penetrating power. concrete.
EM Wave.
 Uses

AS A MEDICAL TRACER IN RADIOTHERAPY/ GAMMA

YOUR VEINS ARE PUMPED KNIFE SURGERY.
WITH A SOURCE THAT EMITS
GAMMA RADIATION
IT DOES NOT DO TOO MUCH
DAMAGE TO CELLS BECAUSE IT
GOES STRAIGHT OUT THE
SYSTEM
Explanation of Gamma
Knife Surgery
• Cobalt 60 is used in Gamma knife surgery.
• This surgery is bloodless method to treat tumours in the brain.
• The gamma ray emissions from the radioisotope are
concentrated/narrowed to provide an intense beam of radiation
with pinpoint accuracy.
• The procedure kills cancer cells or slows their growth by damaging their
DNA.
• There is no major health risk to the patient, the only minor side effects,
are headaches, fatigue and numbness in the scalp for a couple weeks and
little to no hair loss.
 Question

• What does helium-4 decay into?

• Helium-4 is the most abundant isotope of helium and accounts for nearly all
naturally occurring helium atoms on Earth. It has two protons and two
neutrons in its nucleus.
• Answer and Explanation:
• Helium-4 does not decay into any other atom or element. This is because helium-4 is a
stable isotope of helium. A stable isotope is one in which the nuclear forces are
balanced to keep the nucleus intact.
 Background
Radiation
• Background radiation is the amount
of ionizing radiation in a particular area.
• It can vary based on location.
• Areas with a high amount
of background radiation will be
hazardous to life as ionizing radiation
damaged tissue by prohibiting
cellular proliferation (the ability of a cell
to divide and create daughter cells).
 Sources of
Background
Radiation
• Naturally occurring radioisotopes in
the soil and water.
• Cosmic radiation.
• Airborne sources.
• Medical equipment.
• Industrial equipment.
 Sources of
Background
Radiation
• Naturally occurring radioisotopes in the soil and
water.
• Cosmic radiation – sun.
• Airborne sources – radon, tritium.
• Medical equipment – gamma knife surgery.
• Industrial equipment - paper
mills, powerplants.
 Spark
G-M tube
counter
Detecting
Radiation
Cloud
Ratemeter
chamber
 Spark Counter

• The spark counter consists of a tightly stretched wire beneath

a metal gauze which will detect nuclear radiation. When a
radioactive source is brought near the gauze, the air between
it and the wire below becomes ionized making it more
conductive and therefore electrons can easily jump the gap.
 Cloud Chamber

• A closed environment consisting of a supersaturated vapor of water or

alcohol.
• A charged particle will interact with the gaseous substance by knocking
electrons off gas molecules via electrostatic forces during collisions which
results in a trail of ionized gas.
• The ionized gas trail acts as condensation centres creating droplets or clouds
inside of the chamber.
Cloud Chamber
Cloud
Chamber
 • Developed by Hans Geiger and
Walther Müller to detect the three
Geiger–Müller •
(3) types of radioactive decay.
Uses the energy carried by the
Tube radiation to ionize a gas hence
closing a circuit allowing for the
conduction of energy.
Geiger–Müller Tube
 • A device used for counting the rate of a particular
event.
• Generally used to detect the number of
Ratemeter •
radioactive decays per second.
It is used along with a G-M tube.
Questions
Balance the following
equations:
 Homework
• What isotope of carbon is used?
• Why is that isotope used?
• How does carbon dating work?
• How accurate is carbon dating?
• What is a limitation of carbon dating?
 Nucleus Stability

• Nucleus stability is determined by the binding

energy per nucleon.
• The greater the binding energy per nucleon,
the more stable the nucleus.
• Bodies that have the lowest energies tend to
be the most stable.
• Bodies tend to lose energy to increase
stability.
• Nucleons congregate to form nuclei and
release energy to achieve some stability.
• Hence the greater the binding energy per
nucleon the more stable the nucleus.
Nucleus Stability
Nucleus Stability
 Nucleus Stability
• Heavy elements undergo fission to achieve stability.
• Light elements undergo fusion to achieve stability.
• In both fission and fusion as well as all other nuclear
processes, the following quantities are conserved:
o Nucleon Number
o Proton Number
o Energy-Mass
o Charge
 Nuclear
Fission
• Occurs in heavy atoms.
• A slow-moving neutron collides
with the nucleus of an unstable
atom.
• Two or three neutrons are
released from the nucleus of
the impacted atom.
• These neutrons then collide
with other nuclei.
• Energy is also released,
• This energy has positive uses as
well as negative uses.
Nuclear Fission
 Nuclear
Fusion
• Occurs with light elements.
• Two atoms are fused
together to form a heavier,
more stable atom.
• When fusion occurs, the
extra neutrons from the
nuclei are released as well
as energy.
• Nuclear fusion can be used
to generate massive
amounts of electricity.
Nuclear Fusion
 Safety Precautions for handling and
disposal of radioactive material

PPE

Double hull ships

Thick concrete
 PPE

Personal Protective
Equipment is used
Lead Apron Respirator
when directly handling
radioactive materials.

X-ray attenuation X-ray attenuating

Thyroid shield
gloves glasses

Dosimeter
 Double hull ships are used to
provide extra shielding from
radiation when transporting
radioactive material.
Double
Hull Ships
They also provide protection
in the event of a collision.
 Thick
concrete
walls
• Thick concrete walls are
used to shield nuclear
reactors.
• They are also used in silos
to store radioactive waste.
 Activity

• As radioactive decay is random it is

impossible to tell exactly when it will
decay.
• However, if a sample contains N number
of nuclei, then the rate of decay/activity
is proportional to N.
 Activity
• The rate of decay/activity is given a negative
sign to show that as time increases, N
decreases.

• The decay constant is defined as the

probability that a particular nucleus will
undergo radioactive decay at any given time.
 Activity
• The equation can be rearranged to show the number of nuclei
remaining after some time 't' has passed.

• The activity is also called the count rate or decay rate.

• It is a measure of decays per second.
• A unit used to represent decays per second is the becquerel (Bq).
• 1Bq = 1 decay per second.
Half Life
Half Life