Complex Analytic Functions

Complex Numbers
A complex numbers may be denoted by z as:

where x is called the real part, and y is called the imaginary part of z.
The symbol i is called the imaginary unit. We sometimes write
and
For example for

Complex numbers can be represented in a plane of the xy-coordinate

system called the Cartesian coordinate system. For example , the
following diagram may be used for representation
y

4
0
x

-3
Take two complex numbers, and , namely

Notes
1. They are defined to be equal only if their real parts are equal and their
imaginary parts are equal, i.e.
if and only if and
Inequalities between complex numbers such as and
have no meaning
2. Addition
In accordance with the parallelogram law by which forces are added in

mechanics
𝑧1 + 𝑧 2
𝑧2

𝑧1
x

3. Subtraction:
 y

0 x

− 𝑧2
4. Multiplication

5. Division
This operation is defined as the inverse of multiplication

Thus,
i.e.
and
Solving for x and y
,
Thus the number, can be obtained by multiplying the numerator and
denominator of the quotient, by i.e.

Example
For and , find

i) , iv)
6. For any complex numbers , we have

commutative laws

associative laws
distributive law
7. For a complex number , is called the conjugate and it is
represented as , i.e
and =
Hence,

Re z =x =
Im z =y =
Conjugates

A complex number whose imaginary number is zero is a real number,

i.e. x+i0 = x. If the real number is zero, it is 0+iy and is written iy and
called a pure imaginary number.
8. Polar form of complex numbers
y

z
r
θ
O x

then
This is known as the polar form or trigonometric form of a complex
number. r is called the absolute value or modulus of z and is denoted by
The directed angle measured from the positive x-axis to OP is called the
argument of z, arg z in radians. Geometrically, is the distance of the
point z from the origin. Hence the inequality

means that the point z1 is farther from the origin than the point z2 and
is the distance between the points and .

y 𝑧2
|𝑧 2 − 𝑧 2|
𝑧1

x
For given z, the argument is determined only by up to integral multiples
of 2π. The value of which lies in the interval , is called the principal value
of the argument of z.
Example 2
Let , then , arg z = 2n (n=0,1,2,…)

Principal value of arg z is .

Polar multiplication/division

Product

Applying addition theorems of sine and cosines

Thus
Some Important Curves and Regions in the Complex Plane
1. The distance between two points z and a is , it follows that a circle C
of radius can be represented in the form
(1)
𝑎𝜌
2. Consequently, the inequality
(2)
holds for any point z inside C; that is Eq. (2) represents the interior of
C. The open circular disk Eq.(2) is also called the neighborhood of the
point a. Obviously a has infinitely many such neighborhoods, each of
which corresponds to a certain value of
3. Similarly the inequality , represents the exterior of the
circle C.
4. The region between two concentric circles of radii and
can be represented in the form

where a is the center of the circles. Such a region is called an open

circular ring or open annulus.
The equation

is called the unit circle, that is the circle of radius 1 with center at the
origin.
5. A set of points in the complex plane means any sort of collection of finitely
or infinitely many point. For example, the solutions of a quadratic
equation, the points on a line, and the points in the interior of a circle are
sets.
6. A set S in the complex plane is called open if every point of S has a
neighborhood every point of which belongs to S.
7. A set of point in the complex plane is called closed if its complement is
open. For example, the points on and inside the unit circle form a closed set.
8. The complement of a set S in the complex plane is the set of all
points in the complex plane which do not belong to S.
9. A set is called bounded, if all of its points lie within a circle of
sufficiently large radius. The boundary point of a set S is a point every
neighborhood of which contains both point which belong to S and
point which do not belong to S.
10. A set S is connected if any two of its points can be joined by a
broken line of finitely many linear segments all of whose points
belong to S.
11. An open connected set is called a domain. Thus the interior of a
circle is a domain.
12. A region is a set consisting of a domain plus, perhaps, some or all of its
boundary points.
Limit, Derivatives, Analytic Function
• If x and y are real variables, then is said to be a complex variable.
• Consider two complex variables, z and w, and suppose that a relation
is given so that to each value in some region of the complex z-plane
there is assigned a single value of w in a well-defined manner.
• Then w is said to be a function of z, defined in that region, so , or
etc.
• The set of complex numbers which can assume as z varies in that
region, is called the range of values of the function.
• Let u and v be the real and imaginary parts of w. Then since w depends on
, it is clear that in general, both u and v depend on x and y. Thus

which shows that a complex function f(z) is equivalent to two real

functions and .
Example
Let

Find, and for

i. z = 1+3i
ii. z =1+I
• A function f(z) is said to have the limit l as z approaches if f(z) is defined in
a neighborhood of , (except at and if for every positive real number ϵ (no
matter how small but not zero), we can find a positive real number such
that for all values in the disk

and
This means that the value of f(z) are as close as desired to l for all z which are
sufficiently close to and we write

Note well that this definition of a limit implies that z may approach from any
direction in the complex plane.
• A function f(z) is said to be continuous at if f() is defined and

This means f(z) is defined in some neighborhood of . A continuous

function, without qualification, is one which is continuous at all points
where it is defined.
• A function f(z) is said to be differentiable at a point if the limit

exists.
This limit is then called the derivative of f(z) at the point .
• Setting , we have and we may also write

This means that the quotient above always approaches a certain value
and all these values are equal.
• By the definition of a limit above, it means that there is a complex
number for which an being given, we can find a such that
when
• All the familiar rules of real differential calculus, such as the rules for
differentiating a constant, integer powers of z, sums, products and
quotients of differentiable functions, and the chain rule for
differentiating a function of a function, continue to hold in complex.
• There are many functions which do not have a derivative at any point.
For instance, take

Setting we can write

(a)
The limit of Eq.(a) depends on the manner in which approach zero.
There are two paths to follow, i.e. approaching zero first or
approaching zero first.
• If first, and then , the quotient approaches +1. But if first, and then ,
the quotient approaches -1.
• Thus the differentiability of a complex function is a rather severe
requirement.
y I
z+

z II
x
Definition (Analyticity)
A function f(z) is said to be analytic at a point if it is defined, and has a
derivative, at every point in some neighborhood of . It is said to be
analytic in a domain D if it is analytic at every point in D.
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Complex analysis is concerned exclusively with analytic functions.
Although many simple functions are not analytic, the large variety of
remaining functions are, and they yielding a branch of mathematics
which is most useful for practical purposes.
How do we determine the analyticity of a complex function?
Suppose we have a complex function of z in a domain D, i.e
(1)
By definition, f(z) has a derivative
(2)
which exists everywhere in D, and may approach 0 along any path.
Path I: For , let go to zero first, and then
From after becomes zero, and from Eq.(1) and (2) we get

Since exists, the last two real limits exist.

These are partial derivative of u and v with respect to x. Hence can be
written as
(3)
Path II: For , let go to zero first, and then , and after becomes zero,
and

Thus,
(4)
Eq. (3) and (4) implies the existence of the four partial derivatives.
By equating Eq.(3) and (4)
and
These relations are known as the Cauchy-Riemann differential
equations.
Theorem 1
The real part and imaginary part of an analytic function
satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations at each point where is analytic.
Example
Is the function analytic?
Note,
Thus and
and
Theorem 2
If two real-valued functions u(x, y) and v(x, y) of two real variable x and
y have continuous first partial derivatives that satisfy the Cauchy-
Riemann equations in some domain D, then the complex function
is analytic in D.

If we use the polar form and set the Cauchy-Riemann

equations are
and
• It can be proved that the derivative of an analytic function is itself
analytic. Which means will have continuous partial derivatives of all
orders.
• In particular mixed second derivatives of these functions exist:
,
With the Cauchy-Riemann equations: and

Similar expressions could be obtained for the other equation.

Theorem 3
The real part and the imaginary part of a complex function that is
analytic in a domain D are solutions of Laplace’s equation,

in D and have continuous second partial derivatives in D.

Harmonic function
A solution of Laplace’s equation having continuous second-order partial
derivatives is called a harmonic function. Hence the real and imaginary
part of an analytic function are harmonic functions.
• If two harmonic functions satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equation in a
domain D, the is said to be a conjugate harmonic function of u in D
and the pair u, v is called a pair of conjugate harmonic functions.
Example
Show that the following functions are harmonic and find a
corresponding analytic function
a) b)
If a function is analytic, then the real and imaginary parts of the
function, satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equation.
(i) and (ii)
Hence
and
So both eqns. (i) and (ii) are satisfied and f(z) is given by

,
hence Laplace Equation is satisfied
Rational Functions. Root
• Some of the complex functions have interesting properties, which do
not show when the independent variable is restricted to real values.
• Student should follow the consideration with great care, because
these elementary function will frequently be needed in applications
• Detailed knowledge of these special functions will be helpful later for
a better understanding of our more general considerations
Powers:
for all n=0, 1,2,.. (1)
for a single term, z or a series like
(2)
• Eq. (2) is called a polynomial. The exponent n is called the degree of the
polynomial.
• The quotient of two polynomials and is called a rational function, which is a
fraction

is analytic for every z for which , the denominator is not zero.

• A rational function of the particularly simple form
c, m is a positive integer
is called a partial fraction.
• If n=1, 2, (3)
then for each value of w, there corresponds one value of z called the nth
root of z.
Find the root of:
(4)
• Let’s express w and z in polar coordinates, then
and

and from (3)

(De Moivre’s formula)
i.e
For the two to be equal, we equate the absolute values and the trig
values, namely
or
If
then k is an integer

Hence the roots for Eq. (3) or (4) is n distinct values given by:
k=0, 1, ..n-1 (5)
These n values lie on a circle of radius with center at the origin and
constitute the vertices of a regular polygon of n sides.
Example 1
Get the square root of z. Meaning n=2 in Eq.(5). For k=0, for the first
root,
For the second root, k=1 and

Example 2
Suppose from Eq. (4) (4)

This means, n=2, x=0 and y=4. Here

y
4

x
 The principal value is obtained for k=0,

Homework
Determine all values of the following roots and plot the corresponding
point in the complex plane.
7.
Exponential Functions
Real exponential functions

Maclaurin series

In terms of complex variables,

(1)

That is
If
and
It can be shown that

and
From (1) we obtain the Euler formula

So, z may be now be written as

and
Example
Find the value of when z equals .
Trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
From Euler’s formula
x
and
Hence

and
For complex z, z = x + iy :
,
Furthermore

Now cos z and sec z are even, while the others are odd, so

Exponential function is periodic so trigonometric function is also

periodic
,
Logarithm. General Power
• The natural logarithm of z=x+iy is denoted by ln z (sometimes also by
log z) and is defined as the inverse of the exponential function.
• That is
so for
Let
and

or u
where is the elementary real natural logarithm of the positive number
and
Therefore

The value of lnz corresponding to the principal value of arg z, that is

is called the principal value of ln z and is often denoted by Ln z.

Other values of ln z is obtained from
l (n=1, 2, …)