Reproduction and

Embryonic
Development in Plants
and Animals
 Reproduction in Plants
• Plants reproduce in two modes just
like animals: sexual and sexual.
 Sexual Reproduction
• Is the generation of genetically varied offspring from two
parents.

Asexual Reproduction
• Occurs when a produces offspring is genetically identical to the
sole parent.
 Asexual Reproduction in Plants
• Asexual reproduction in plants refers to the process by which
new plants are generated without the involvement of gametes
(sex cells) or fertilization.

• asexual reproduction relies on the ability of plants to produce

offspring that are genetically identical to the parent plant.
 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering
Plants
• Sexual reproduction in flowering plants, also
known as angiosperms, involves the fusion of
male and female gametes to produce offspring.

• Flowers are the sexual reproductive structures of

angiosperms.
 Pollination
• Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther
of a flower to the stigma of the same flower (self-
pollination) or another flower (cross-pollination).

• This transfer can occur through various agents,

including wind, water, insects, birds, or other
animals.
 Germination of Pollen
• Once the pollen lands on the stigma, it germinates
and develops a pollen tube, which grows down
through the style towards the ovary.
 Fertilization
• The pollen tube delivers the sperm cells to the ovule, where
fertilization occurs.
• One sperm cell fuses with the egg cell to form a zygote, which
develops into the embryo of the seed.
• Another sperm cell fuses with two polar nuclei to form a
triploid cell, which develops into the endosperm, providing
nourishment for the developing embryo.
 Seed and Fruit Formation
• After fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed,
containing the embryo, endosperm, and protective seed
coat.

• The ovary enlarges and matures into a fruit, which

protects the seeds and aids in their dispersal.
 Germination
• When conditions are favorable, the seed undergoes
germination, where it absorbs water and begins to
grow, eventually developing into a new plant.
Flowering plants in sexual
reproduction
 Main Parts of a Flower used in
Reproduction
Stamen (Male Reproductive Organ)

• Anther: The anther is the pollen-producing structure located at the

tip of the stamen. It contains pollen sacs where pollen grains (male
gametes) are produced through meiosis.

• Filament: This is the slender stalk that supports the anther,

positioning it for effective pollen dispersal.
Pistil (Female Reproductive Organ)

• Stigma: The stigma is the receptive surface at the top of the pistil where
pollen grains land during pollination.

• Style: The style is a slender tube-like structure that connects the stigma to
the ovary. It provides a pathway for pollen tubes to grow down to the ovules.

• Ovary: The ovary is the swollen base of the pistil that contains ovules. After
fertilization, the ovary develops into a fruit enclosing the seeds.

• Ovules: Ovules are the female gametophyte-containing structures within the

ovary. Each ovule typically contains an egg cell (ovum) and one or more
polar nuclei.
Other Floral Structures

• Sepals: Sepals are leaf-like structures at the base of the flower that
protect the developing flower bud. They may also play a role in
attracting pollinators.

• Petals: Petals are often colorful structures surrounding the

reproductive organs. They attract pollinators with their colors, scents,
and nectar.

• Nectaries: Nectaries are specialized structures that produce nectar,

a sugary fluid that attracts pollinators and serves as a reward for their
visitation.
Female Reproductive
System
Gonad- organ that produce
gametes (egg and sperm cell)
 Follicles are small, sac-like cells that
contain an immature egg cell, or
"oocyte.”

-nourish and support the developing cells.

Ovulation is the process in a female’s
menstrual cycle when a mature egg is
released from one of the ovaries.
Ovary- two small organs on either
side of a woman's lower belly, and they
produce eggs.
 Fallopian tube- They're pathways
for eggs to travel from the ovaries to
the uterus.
 Uterus- It's a pear-shaped organ
where a fertilized egg implants and
develops during pregnancy.
Endometrium- The endometrium is the lining of the
uterus.

-It's soft and thick, like a blanket, and it builds up

every month in preparation for a possible pregnancy.

-If no pregnancy occurs, it sheds during

menstruation.
 Cervix- This is the lower part of the
uterus that connects to the vagina. It's like
a gateway between the uterus and the
outside world.
Vagina- The vagina is like a flexible tube
that connects the outside of the body to
the uterus. It's where menstrual blood
leaves the body and where babies come
out during childbirth.
Summary of the Process of
Reproduction
 Puberty

Reproduction typically begins with

puberty, which is the stage of
development when a person becomes
sexually mature.
 Menstrual Cycle
In females, the menstrual cycle is a monthly series of
changes that prepare the body for pregnancy. It involves
the maturation and release of an egg (ovulation),
thickening of the uterine lining (endometrium), and
shedding of the lining if pregnancy does not occur
(menstruation).
 Ovulation

Around the middle of the menstrual cycle, typically

about 14 days before the start of the next menstrual
period, a mature egg is released from one of the ovaries.
This process is called ovulation and is triggered by
hormonal changes.
 Fertilization
If sexual intercourse occurs around the time of
ovulation and sperm reaches the egg in the fallopian
tube, fertilization can occur.

Fertilization is the union of a sperm cell with an egg

cell, resulting in the formation of a zygote.
 Implantation
After fertilization, the fertilized egg (zygote) begins to divide and
travel down the fallopian tube toward the uterus.

Once it reaches the uterus, it implants itself into the thickened

uterine lining (endometrium), where it will continue to grow and
develop into an embryo and eventually a fetus.
 Pregnancy
If implantation is successful, pregnancy begins.

During pregnancy, the embryo/fetus receives nutrients and

oxygen from the mother through the placenta, a temporary organ
that develops in the uterus. Pregnancy typically lasts about 40
weeks, divided into three trimesters.
 Birth
The process of childbirth, also known as labor and
delivery, occurs when the baby is ready to be born.

This process involves contractions of the uterus,

which help push the baby through the birth canal
(vagina) and into the outside world.
Vulva – refers to all parts of the
female external genitalia
Female Reproductive
Hormones
 Hormone
• Hormones are chemical messengers produced by
glands in the body.
• They travel through the bloodstream to various organs
and tissues, where they regulate important processes
such as growth, metabolism, reproduction, and mood.
• Essentially, hormones act like signals that help
coordinate and control the body's activities and
responses to different conditions.
 Gonadotropin-releasing
Hormone (GnRH)
• This hormone is produced by the
hypothalamus in the brain. It signals
the pituitary gland to release two other
hormones: FSH and LH.
 Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
• FSH stimulates the growth and
development of ovarian follicles in the
ovaries.

• FSH also promotes the production of

estrogen by the ovarian follicles.
 Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
• LH triggers ovulation, which is the release of a
mature egg from the ovary.

• After ovulation, LH stimulates the remaining

follicle to transform into a structure called the
corpus luteum, which produces progesterone.
 Estrogen
• Estrogen is produced primarily by the ovaries,
although small amounts are also made by the adrenal
glands and fat cells.

• Estrogen plays a key role in the development of

female reproductive organs, the menstrual cycle,
and secondary sexual characteristics.
 Estrogen
• It helps regulate the menstrual
cycle and promotes the thickening
of the uterine lining (endometrium)
to prepare for pregnancy.
 Progesterone
• Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum after
ovulation.

• It helps prepare the uterine lining for implantation of

a fertilized egg and maintains the early stages of
pregnancy if fertilization occurs.

• Progesterone also helps regulate the menstrual cycle.

 Prolactin
• Prolactin is primarily known for its role
in stimulating milk production in the
breasts (lactation) after childbirth.

• It is produced by the pituitary gland

 Oxytocin
• Oxytocin is sometimes called the "love hormone" or
the "cuddle hormone" because it is released during
social bonding activities.

• In the context of reproduction, oxytocin stimulates

contractions of the uterus during labor and
childbirth. It also plays a role in milk ejection (let-
down) during breastfeeding.
 Androgens
• Androgens are male hormones, but they are also
present in females in smaller amounts.

• They are primarily produced by the ovaries and

adrenal glands.

• Androgens play a role in female sexual development

and libido.
 Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
(hCG)
• hCG is produced by cells that form the
placenta during pregnancy.

• It is often referred to as the "pregnancy

hormone" because its presence in the
urine is detected by pregnancy tests.
 Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
(hCG)
• hCG helps maintain the corpus luteum
during early pregnancy, which in turn
supports the production of progesterone
to sustain the pregnancy until the
placenta can take over hormone
production.
Male Reproductive System
 Testicle (Testes/Testis)
• The testis is the primary male
reproductive organ responsible for
producing sperm cells and the
hormone testosterone.
 Testosterone

• Testosterone is the primary male

sex hormone .
 Scrotum
• The scrotum is a pouch of skin and muscle
located beneath the penis in males.

• Its primary function is to house and protect

the testes.
• The scrotum plays a vital role in
regulating the temperature of the
testes to facilitate the production of
sperm
 Epididymis
• The epididymis is a highly convoluted tube
located on the posterior surface of each
testicle within the male reproductive system.

• It serves as a crucial site for the maturation,

storage, and transportation of sperm cells
 Penis
• The penis is the primary external sexual organ in
males.

• delivering sperm from the male reproductive system

to the female reproductive tract during sexual
intercourse

• passage for urine to exit the body

 Vas Deferens
• also known as the ductus deferens, is a long, muscular
tube that forms part of the male reproductive system

• transport mature sperm from the epididymis, where

sperm are stored and undergo maturation, to the
ejaculatory ducts
• As sperm move through the vas deferens, they
mix with fluids from the seminal vesicles,
prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands to
form semen.

• These fluids provide nutrients, protection, and

a medium for sperm to swim in.
 Ejaculation

• Ejaculation is the process by which semen is

forcefully expelled from the male
reproductive system out through the penis
 Semen
• It is a mixture of sperm and fluids from various
glands in the male reproductive system.

• Semen serves to nourish and protect sperm,

providing them with the necessary nutrients and
environment to survive and swim effectively.
 Sperm Parts
1. Head
- The head of the sperm cell contains the genetic material (DNA) necessary for
fertilization

2. Midpiece (Body)
-The midpiece of the sperm cell contains mitochondria, which provide energy for
the sperm's movement (motility).

3. Tail (Flagellum)
- The tail, or flagellum, is a long, whip-like structure that propels the sperm forward
through the female reproductive tract