Argumentation

Aristotle: The 3 Main Rhetorical Appeals

• Ethos
– Based on the credibility and credentials of the
speaker / writer. You should appear authoritative,
respectable, honest and likable
• Pathos
– Based on emotion
• Logos
– Based on the logic or reason of the argument
 Ethos: Credibility & credentials
• Factors that affect speaker’s credibility:
– Competence
• Audience perception of speaker’s knowledge & intelligence
– Character
• Audience perception of speaker’s sincerity,
trustworthiness, relationship to audience
– Sociability
– Dynamism
– Physical attractiveness
– Identity of experience between speaker & audience
 Logos: Evidence & Reasoning

The Elements of Effective Argumentation, according to

Booth, Colomb and Williams, The Craft of Research
Although today Franklin D. Roosevelt is revered as one of America’s more admired

historical figures, there is evidence to suggest that, at the time, he was not as popular as

many now claim; indeed, that had it not been for WWII, he might not even have been

elected to a third term. In the late 1930s, many newspapers attacked him for promotiong

socialism, a sign that any modern administration may be in trouble with the people, or

at least among the most literate segments. In 1938, for example, 70% of the newspapers

in the Midwest accused him of wanting the government to manage the banking system.

Unless these newspapers were controlled by special interests, their attacks demonstrate

that Roosevelt was not as widely admired as some have recently suggested. Admittedly,

these same newspapers often praised him for his attempts to end unemployment. BUT

THOSE WHO ARGUE THAT ROOSEVELT WAS WIDELY LOVED (NICHOLSON 1982, WIGGINS

1973) CONCENTRATE TOO HEAVILY ON THE MEMORIES OF THOSE WITH AN INTEREST IN

DEIFYING HIM. The most reliable evidence suggests that Roosevelt was far from being
In the late 1930s, newspapers praised Franklin D. Roosevelt for his attempts to end

unemployment, and some have recently argued that in his time he was widely loved

(Nicholson 1982, Wiggins 1973). Indeed, today, Roosevelt is revered as one of

America’s most admired historical figures, but THOSE WHO CLAIM HE WAS WIDELY

LOVED MAY CONCENTRATE TOO HEAVILY ON THE MEMORIES OF THOSE WITH AN

INTEREST IN DEIFYING HIM. In fact, many of those same newspapers that praised him

attacked him for promoting socialism, a good sign that any modern administration

may be in trouble with the people, or at least among its most literate segments. In

1938, for example, 70% of the newspapers in the Midwest accused him of wanting the

government to manage the banking system. Unless these newspapers were controlled

by special interests, their attacks demonstrate that Roosevelt was not as widely

admired as some have recently suggested. In fact, some evidence suggests that, had it

not been for World War II, Roosevelt might not have been elected to a third term.
 Pathos: Appealing to emotions
• Very important for policy speeches, not so
acceptable in fact speeches.
• Be wary of sounding over-emotional.
• Make sure you are (or sound!) genuine.
 Fallacies in Reasoning

• Ad Hominem argumentation
– E.g. "University of Virginia professor [Charlotte]
Patterson, considered a leading researcher in the
field, says she has reviewed 22 studies involving
offspring of gays ranging from toddlers to adults.
She found none convincing [sic] that the children
had suffered or were more than normally inclined
to be gay. [...] Conservatives discredit Patterson by
pointing out that she is an acknowledged lesbian,
with a presumed ideological interest in the subject
she studies." - Time, Sept. 20, 1993, p. 71.
 Other Fallacies in Reasoning

• Fallacies of False Cause

– Is something a cause of something else or do the
two happen to occur concurrently?
– E.g. “An FBI study of thirty-five serial killers
revealed that twenty-nine were attracted to
pornography and incorporated it into their sexual
activity, which included rape and serial murder.” -
from an anti-pornography ad
 Other Fallacies in Reasoning

• Straw Man Fallacy

– A straw man fallacy occurs when (1) the arguer
misrepresents their opponent’s view, (2) shows
that this misrepresentation is mistaken, and then
(3) concludes that their opponent’s view is
mistaken. Here are some examples:
– E.g. “What I object to most about those people
who oppose capital punishment is that they believe
that the lives of convicted murderers are more
important than the lives of the police and prison
guards who protect us. But, obviously, since the
lives of those who protect us are of the greatest
value, no one should oppose capital punishment.”
 Other Fallacies in Reasoning
• Appeal to Ignorance
– The fallacy of appeal to ignorance occurs when
someone uses an opponent's inability to disprove
a claim as evidence of that claim's being true or
false (or, acceptable or unacceptable). For
instance, consider the following:
– E.g. “You haven't been able to prove beyond any
reasonable doubt that there is no God. Therefore,
it is still reasonable for me to believe in God. “
 Other Fallacies in Reasoning
• Fallacy of Equivocation
– An ambiguous expression is a word or phrase that has
more than one distinct meaning in the context in
which it is used. For instance, if I say "I went to the
bank", given the context, it may be unclear whether I
went to First National or the shore of the Mississippi. A
fallacy of equivocation occurs when the persuasive
force of an argument depends on the shifting meaning
of an ambiguous expression.
– E.g. “The pro-abortion-rights people, of course, say a
baby is not a human until it is born. What do they
think it is? A vegetable or a fruit? It just shows where
our society is headed when we no longer have value
for human life.” (Letter to the editor, Columbus
Dispatch, March 10, 1996.)
 Other Fallacies in Reasoning
• Appeal to Popularity
– The appeal to popularity occurs when people infer
that something is good or true because it is
popular.
• Appeal to Tradition
– Something is ‘naturally’ good because it’s part of
a society’s tradition
• Begging the Claim
– The conclusion that the writer should prove is
validated within the claim.
– E.g. Filthy and polluting coal should be banned.
 Other Fallacies in Reasoning
• Circular Argument
– This restates the argument rather than actually
proving it.
– E.g. George Bush is a good communicator because
he speaks effectively.
• Red Herring
– This is a diversionary tactic that avoids the key
issues, often by avoiding opposing arguments
rather than addressing them.
– E.g. The level of mercury in seafood may be
unsafe, but what will fishers do to support their
families?
 Other Fallacies in Reasoning
• Slippery Slope
– The slippery slope fallacy occurs when someone
claims that an apparently harmless action is likely
to result in a chain reaction of events (the
"slippery slope") leading up to a harmful
consequence, when, in fact, the chain reaction of
events is very unlikely to occur.
• E.g. "I think that the use of marijuana as a medical
treatment shouldn't even be considered. If we make
drugs legal in a few cases, then we might eventually
have to completely legalize them - which is even crazier
than Proposition 215. If we want to help people out by
letting them do illegal things, then let's just get rid of all
our laws." - letter to editor of Newsweek, November
11, 1996.
Identify the Logical Fallacies Below
• Star Wars is the greatest movie because no
other movie is as good.
• Of course we can all agree that women are
generally more emotional than men.
• If you drink and drive, you increase your
chances of getting into an accident.
• Almost all of the people who called into the
radio station said they dislike the president.
Apparently the president is extremely
unpopular.
• All prisoners are criminals, of course, because
otherwise they would not be in jail.
• The only thing needed for a successful
relationship with anyone is communication.
• The discovery of ancient craters that predate
the disappearance of the dinosaurs proves that
asteroids or other extraterrestrial debris wiped
out the dinosaurs.
• Anyone who supports the right to bear arms
obviously just likes killing things.
• I think the space program is a major mistake
because, after all, whatever goes up must come
down.
• Why would anyone believe a word she says? She
dresses so badly!