Module 5

Electrical and Hybrid Vehicles

1. Definition of Electric Vehicles (EVs)

- Electric Vehicles (EVs) are vehicles that are powered by one or more electric motors, using energy stored in batteries.

- EVs exclude traditional internal combustion engines and rely solely on electric power for propulsion.

2. Definition of Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)

- Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) combine an internal combustion engine (usually gasoline) with an electric
propulsion system.
- HEVs use both fuel and electricity to enhance efficiency and reduce emissions.

3. Importance of Eco-friendly Transportation

- Growing environmental concerns and the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions have increased the focus on
sustainable transportation.

- EVs and HEVs play a crucial role in reducing dependence on fossil fuels and mitigating the impact of traditional
vehicles on the environment.
4. Trends in the Automotive Industry

- The automotive industry is experiencing a shift towards electrification due to advancements

in battery technology, government incentives, and consumer demand.
- Major automakers are investing heavily in electric and hybrid vehicle development to meet
emission standards and sustainability goals.

5. Objectives of the Presentation

- Explore the key components of Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
(HEVs).
- Understand the technology behind EV batteries, chargers, drives, transmission, and power
devices.
- Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of Electric Vehicles.
- Examine the Hybrid Electric Vehicle drivetrain components and the benefits of hybrid
technology.
 Components of an EV
1. Electric Vehicle Basics
A. Electric Motor
- Function: Converts electrical energy from the battery into mechanical energy for propulsion.
- Types: AC (Alternating Current) motors and DC (Direct Current) motors.
- Advantages: High efficiency, instant torque, and lower maintenance.

B. Controller
- Function: Regulates the power supplied to the electric motor, controlling the vehicle's speed and torque.
- Importance: Ensures efficient power management and optimal performance.
- Types: Inverter-based controllers for converting DC to AC.

C. Battery Pack
- Function: Stores electrical energy to power the electric motor.
- Types: Lithium-ion batteries are commonly used for their high energy density and longer lifespan.
- Features: Battery capacity is measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
D. Onboard Charger
- Function: Converts AC power from an external source (charging station or household outlet) to DC for charging the
battery.
- Importance: Facilitates convenient and efficient charging of the EV.
- Charging Levels: Level 1 (household outlets), Level 2 (dedicated charging stations), and
Level 3 (fast charging).
 EV Battery Technology

A. Lithium-ion Batteries
- Dominant Technology: Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are widely used in EVs due to their high energy density and
reliability.
- Advantages: Lighter weight, longer lifespan, and better energy storage compared to traditional batteries.
- Challenges: Cost and environmental concerns regarding lithium extraction.

B. Battery Management System (BMS)

- Function: Monitors and manages the performance, state of charge, and health of individual battery cells.
- Importance: Ensures safe and efficient operation, preventing overcharging or discharging.
- Features: Thermal management, cell balancing, and fault detection.

C. Battery Cooling Systems

- Purpose: Regulates the temperature of the battery pack during charging and discharging.
- Types: Air cooling and liquid cooling systems.
- Significance: Temperature control enhances battery life and performance, especially during rapid charging.
 D. Emerging Technologies
- Research Areas: Ongoing developments in solid-state batteries, promising higher energy density and improved
safety.
- Potential Impact: Increased range, faster charging, and reduced environmental impact.
 Chargers
3. Charging Infrastructure

A. Home Charging
- Accessibility: Most EV owners charge at home using standard household outlets (Level 1 charging).
- Charging Time: Level 1 charging is slower but suitable for overnight charging.
- Equipment: Requires a home charging station for faster Level 2 charging.

B. Public Charging Stations

- Network Expansion: Growing network of public charging stations enables on-the-go charging.
- Charging Speeds: Level 2 chargers are common, providing faster charging than Level 1.
- Locations: Strategic placement in urban areas, along highways, and at public facilities.

C. Fast Charging Technology

- Level 3 (DC Fast Charging): High-powered chargers for rapid charging.
- Advantages: Significantly reduces charging time, making long-distance travel more practical.
- Considerations: Fast charging may impact battery life, and infrastructure development is ongoing.

D. Wireless Charging
- Emerging Technology: Inductive charging allows EVs to charge without physical connections.
- Benefits: Convenience and reduced wear on charging connectors.
- Challenges: Efficiency and standardization are areas of ongoing research and development.
 Drives and Transmission

4. Drivetrain Components

A. Electric Drivetrain
- Core Component: Electric motor, controller, and power electronics form the essential components.
- Advantages: Simplicity, high torque at low speeds, and smooth acceleration.
- Regenerative Braking: Captures and stores energy during braking, improving overall efficiency.

B. Single-speed Transmission
- Characteristic: EVs typically have a single-speed transmission.
- Advantages: Simplifies design, reduces maintenance, and enhances efficiency.
- Efficiency: Electric motors provide a broad range of torque without the need for multiple gears.

C. Regenerative Braking
- Function: Converts kinetic energy during braking into electrical energy for recharging the battery.
- Benefits: Improves efficiency, extends brake life, and enhances overall driving experience.
- Adjustable Levels: Some EVs allow drivers to adjust the regenerative braking intensity.

D. Power Split Devices

- Hybrid-Specific Component: Used in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) to distribute power between the engine and
electric motor.
- Function: Optimizes power delivery based on driving conditions for fuel efficiency.
 Power Devices
5. Power Electronics

A. Inverters
- Role: Converts DC power from the battery into AC power for the electric motor.
- Importance: Enables variable speed control and efficient power delivery.
- Technology Advancements: Silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN) inverters for higher efficiency.

B. DC-DC Converters
- Function: Converts high-voltage DC from the battery to the lower-voltage DC required for auxiliary systems.
- Examples: Powering lights, heating, and other low-voltage components.
- Efficiency: Ensures optimal use of electrical energy within the vehicle.

C. Power Distribution Systems

- Purpose: Distributes electrical power from the battery to various components.
- Safety Measures: Fuses and circuit breakers protect against electrical faults.
- Advancements: Smart power distribution systems for improved efficiency and safety.
D. Integrated Systems
- Trends: Integration of power electronics for compact and lightweight designs.
- Advantages: Reduces overall vehicle weight and improves space utilization.
- Examples: Integration of motor controllers with electric motors.
 Advantages of EVs

6. Benefits of Electric Vehicles

A. Zero Emissions
- Environmental Impact: EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, reducing air pollution and contributing to cleaner air.
- Climate Change Mitigation: Lowering greenhouse gas emissions, especially in regions with renewable energy sources.

B. Lower Operating Costs

- Fuel and Maintenance Savings: Electricity is generally cheaper than traditional fuels, and EVs have fewer moving parts,
reducing maintenance costs.
- Incentives: Some governments offer financial incentives to promote EV adoption, further lowering costs for consumers.

C. Energy Efficiency
- Electric Motor Efficiency: Electric motors are more energy-efficient than internal combustion engines, resulting in higher
overall vehicle efficiency.
- Regenerative Braking: Capturing and reusing energy during braking enhances efficiency and extends driving range.
D. Innovation and Technology

- Advancements: EVs drive technological innovation, leading to improvements in battery technology, charging
infrastructure, and smart vehicle integration.
- Market Growth: Increased demand for EVs spurs research and development, fostering a competitive and
innovative automotive market
 Disadvantages of EVs

A. Limited Range
-Concern: EVs often have a limited driving range on a single charge compared to traditional vehicles.
- Improvements: Ongoing advancements in battery technology aim to extend the range of EVs.

B. Charging Infrastructure
- Availability: Uneven distribution of charging stations, especially in rural areas.
- Charging Times: Despite fast charging options, longer charging times compared to refueling with traditional fuels.

C. Initial Cost
- Higher Purchase Price: EVs can have a higher upfront cost compared to traditional vehicles.
- incentives: Government incentives and rebates may offset initial costs, but awareness is crucial.

D. Battery Degradation
- Concern: Over time, EV batteries may experience degradation, reducing their capacity and driving range.
- Mitigation: Advances in battery management systems aim to minimize degradation.

E. Recycling Challenges
-Environmental Impact: Battery recycling and disposal present challenges for managing electronic waste.
- Research: Ongoing research into sustainable battery recycling methods.
 Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)

Introduction to Hybrid Technology

A. Definition of Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)

- Combination of Technologies:** HEVs integrate both an internal combustion engine (ICE) and an
electric motor.
- Operational Modes: Can operate on the internal combustion engine, electric motor, or a
combination of both.

B. Blend of Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) and Electric Motor

- Dual Power Sources : Allows for flexibility in power delivery based on driving conditions.
- Regenerative Braking: Similar to pure EVs, HEVs capture and reuse energy during braking.

C. Types of Hybrid Systems

- Parallel Hybrid: Both the engine and electric motor can directly power the vehicle.
- Series Hybrid: The electric motor solely powers the vehicle, with the engine generating electricity.
 HEV Drivetrain Components

1. Components of HEVs

A. Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)

- Role: Provides additional power when needed and charges the battery in some configurations.
- Fuel Type: Typically gasoline, but diesel and other fuels can be used.

B. Electric Motor
- Role: Assists the internal combustion engine during acceleration and operates independently at lower
speeds.
- Power Source: Draws energy from the battery pack.

C. Battery Pack
- Role: Stores electrical energy for the electric motor and assists during high-demand situations.
- Recharge: Charged through regenerative braking and by the internal combustion engine.

D. Power Split Device

-Role: Distributes power from the internal combustion engine and electric motor to the drivetrain.
-Functionality: Optimizes power distribution for fuel efficiency.
 Advantages of Hybrid Vehicles

A. Increased Fuel Efficiency

-Dual Power Sources: Combining an internal combustion engine with an electric motor allows for more efficient fuel
utilization.
-City Driving: Particularly effective in stop-and-go traffic, where the electric motor can operate at lower speeds.

B. Reduced Emissions
-Enhanced Environmental Performance: Utilizing electric power during certain driving conditions reduces overall
tailpipe emissions.
-Regenerative Braking : Capturing and reusing energy during braking further contributes to environmental
sustainability.

C. Regenerative Braking
-Energy Recovery: Similar to pure electric vehicles, hybrids benefit from regenerative braking to recapture energy
during deceleration.
-Extended Brake Life: Reduced wear on traditional braking systems.

D. Enhanced Performance
- Instant Torque: Electric motors provide immediate torque, contributing to improved acceleration.
- Optimized Power Delivery: Hybrid systems can optimize power delivery based on driving conditions for enhanced
performance.
 Transducers
Definition:
Transducers are devices that convert energy from one form to another.
They play a crucial role in various applications by facilitating the conversion of different types of energy.

Classification:

1. Based on Energy Conversion:

- Electrical Transducers: Convert non-electrical quantities into electrical signals (e.g., thermocouples,
photoelectric cells).
- Mechanical Transducers: Convert mechanical quantities into electrical signals (e.g., microphones,
accelerometers).
- Chemical Transducers: Convert chemical information into electrical signals (e.g., pH sensors, gas sensors).

2. Based on Application:

-Medical Transducers: Used in healthcare for monitoring and diagnostic purposes.

- Industrial Transducers: Applied in manufacturing processes for control and automation.
- Environmental Transducers: Monitor and measure environmental parameters (e.g., temperature, humidity).
 Sensors
Definition:
Sensors are specialized transducers that detect and respond to specific physical or chemical changes in their environment.
They are crucial for gathering data and providing input to various systems.

Classification:

1.Based on Quantity to be Measured:

- Temperature Sensors: Thermocouples, thermistors.

- Pressure Sensors: Barometers, piezoelectric sensors.
- Light Sensors: Photoresistors, photodiodes, phototransistors.

2. Based on Detection Principle:

- Active Sensors: Require an external power source for operation.

- Passive Sensors: Operate without an external power source.

3. Based on Output:

- Analog Sensors: Provide continuous output signals.

- Digital Sensors: Provide discrete digital output signals.
 Principles of Working
Transducers:

Basic Working Principles:

1.Energy Conversion: Transducers operate on the principle of converting energy from one form to another.
For example, a piezoelectric transducer converts mechanical stress into electrical energy.

2. Output Generation: The transduction process results in an output that represents the measured or sensed
quantity. This output can be electrical voltage, current, resistance, or another relevant signal.

Sensors

Basic Working Principles:

1.Detection of Change: Sensors are designed to detect changes in their surroundings, whether it's a change in
temperature, pressure, light intensity, or another physical or chemical parameter.

2.Transduction Mechanism: Once a change is detected, sensors employ transduction mechanisms to convert
the detected signal into an electrical form that can be processed and utilized by electronic systems.
 Light Sensors - Types and Applications
A. Photoresistors (LDR)
Principle:
-Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR): The resistance of an LDR changes with the intensity of light.

Applications:
-Automatic Street Lights: LDRs are commonly used in outdoor lighting systems to adjust brightness based on
ambient light conditions.
-Photography: Used in cameras to control exposure settings.

B. Photodiodes and Phototransistors

Principle:
- Photoelectric Effect: Photodiodes generate a current when exposed to light, while phototransistors amplify this
current.

Applications:
- Optical Communications: Photodiodes play a crucial role in converting light signals into electrical signals for
communication.
- Solar Cells: Photodiodes are used in solar panels to convert sunlight into electricity.
C. Light Dependent Capacitors

Principle:
- Capacitance Variation: The capacitance of these sensors changes with light intensity.

Applications:
- Touchscreens: Light-dependent capacitors are utilized in touchscreens for detecting touch and
providing responsive feedback.
- Object Detection: Used in industrial applications for detecting the presence or absence of objects.
A proximity sensor is a type of sensor that detects the presence or absence of an object or target within a certain range
without any physical contact. It operates based on the principle of electromagnetic fields, infrared radiation, or
ultrasound. The primary function of a proximity sensor is to determine the distance between the sensor and the object
and provide an output signal based on this information.

Here are some key aspects of proximity sensors:

Types of Proximity Sensors:

Infrared Proximity Sensors: These sensors emit infrared light and measure the reflection to determine the presence or
absence of an object. When an object is in close proximity, the amount of reflected light changes, triggering the sensor.

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors: These sensors use ultrasonic waves to detect objects. They emit ultrasonic pulses and
measure the time it takes for the sound waves to bounce back after hitting an object. The time delay is used to calculate
the distance.

Capacitive Proximity Sensors: These sensors detect changes in capacitance when an object enters the sensor's electrical
field. They are commonly used for detecting non-metallic objects.
Operating Principle:
- Proximity sensors operate based on the principle of detecting changes in a particular physical property (such as light,
sound, or capacitance) caused by the presence or absence of an object in the sensor's proximity.

Applications:
- Proximity sensors are widely used in various applications, including:
- Smartphones: Proximity sensors in smartphones help in turning off the display when the device is close to the user's
face during a call.
-Automotive: Proximity sensors are used in parking assistance systems to detect obstacles.
- Industrial Automation: They are used in manufacturing processes for object detection and positioning.
- Robotics: Proximity sensors help robots avoid obstacles and navigate in their environment.
Advantages:
- Proximity sensors are non-contact devices, meaning they do not physically touch the objects they are detecting.
- They are often faster and more reliable than mechanical switches.
- Proximity sensors can be designed to work in various environmental conditions.

5.Limitations:
- The sensing range of proximity sensors is limited, and the type of sensor chosen depends on the specific application
requirements.
- Some types of proximity sensors may be affected by environmental conditions, such as dust, humidity, or temperature.
1. Definition:
- Transducer: A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another. It can convert various types of
physical quantities, such as mechanical, electrical, thermal, or optical, into corresponding electrical signals or vice versa.
- Sensor: A sensor is a specific type of transducer that detects or measures a physical property and converts it into an
electrical signal. Sensors are essentially a subset of transducers, focusing on the detection aspect.

2. Function:
- Transducer: It performs the overall conversion of energy from one form to another. Transducers can be involved in both
input and output energy conversions in a system.
- **Sensor:** It specifically focuses on the input part of the transduction process, converting a physical parameter into an
electrical signal that can be measured or interpreted.

3. Types:
- Transducer: There are various types of transducers, such as actuators (which convert electrical signals into mechanical
motion), generators (which convert mechanical motion into electrical energy), and sensors.
- Sensor: Sensors are a subset of transducers, specializing in detecting specific physical properties like temperature,
pressure, light, or motion.
4. Examples:
- Transducer: A microphone is an example of a transducer that converts acoustic energy (sound waves) into electrical
signals. Similarly, a loudspeaker is a transducer that converts electrical signals into sound waves.
- Sensor: A temperature sensor measures temperature and converts it into an electrical signal. A photodetector is a sensor
that detects light and produces an electrical output.

5. Use Cases:
- Transducer: Transducers find applications in a wide range of systems, including communication devices, control
systems, and measurement instruments.
-Sensor: Sensors are commonly used in various fields, such as industrial automation, environmental monitoring,
healthcare, and consumer electronics.

6. Output:
-Transducer: It can have various types of output, depending on the specific application. The output may be electrical,
mechanical, optical, or any other relevant form of energy.
-Sensor: The output of a sensor is typically an electrical signal that represents the measured physical parameter. This
electrical signal can be further processed, displayed, or used for control purposes.
 Transducer Sensor
A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another. It A sensor is a specific type of transducer that detects or measures a physical
can convert various types of physical quantities, such as mechanical, property and converts it into an electrical signal. Sensors are essentially a
electrical, thermal, or optical, into corresponding electrical signals or vice subset of transducers, focusing on the detection aspect.
versa.
It specifically focuses on the input part of the transduction process, converting
It performs the overall conversion of energy from one form to another. a physical parameter into an electrical signal that can be measured or
Transducers can be involved in both input and output energy conversions interpreted.
in a system.
Sensors are a subset of transducers, specializing in detecting specific physical
There are various types of transducers, such as actuators (which convert properties like temperature, pressure, light, or motion.
electrical signals into mechanical motion), generators (which convert
mechanical motion into electrical energy), and sensors. A temperature sensor measures temperature and converts it into an electrical
signal. A photodetector is a sensor that detects light and produces an electrical
A microphone is an example of a transducer that converts acoustic output.
energy (sound waves) into electrical signals. Similarly, a loudspeaker is a
transducer that converts electrical signals into sound waves. Sensors are commonly used in various fields, such as industrial automation,
environmental monitoring, healthcare, and consumer electronics.
Transducers find applications in a wide range of systems, including
communication devices, control systems, and measurement instruments.
The output of a sensor is typically an electrical signal that represents the
measured physical parameter. This electrical signal can be further processed,
It can have various types of output, depending on the specific application. displayed, or used for control purposes.
The output may be electrical, mechanical, optical, or any other relevant
form of energy.
A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that converts a magnetic field's strength into an electrical voltage. This technology is
based on the Hall effect, discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879, which involves the generation of a voltage across a conductor
when subjected to a perpendicular magnetic field and a current flow.

Working Principle (2 marks):

A typical Hall effect sensor consists of a thin semiconductor material through which a current flows. When this current-
carrying conductor is exposed to a magnetic field perpendicular to the current flow, it produces a voltage across the
semiconductor material. This voltage, known as the Hall voltage, is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic
field.

Construction (1 mark):
The sensor usually includes a semiconductor material, such as gallium arsenide or silicon, and a current-carrying conductor
made of metal. The semiconductor is exposed to the external magnetic field, and the resulting Hall voltage is measured.
Uses (3 marks):
1. Proximity Detection (1 mark):
Hall effect sensors are commonly used in proximity detection applications. They can sense the presence or absence of a
magnetic field, making them ideal for proximity switches in various devices and systems.

2. Speed and Position Sensing (1 mark):

In automotive applications, Hall effect sensors are employed to measure the speed of rotating components like wheels or
to determine the position of the crankshaft. They provide accurate and reliable information in these critical systems.

3.Current Sensing (1 mark):

Hall effect sensors are utilized for measuring current flow in a conductor. By detecting the magnetic field generated by
the current, these sensors can provide a proportional output, making them valuable in applications where monitoring and
controlling current is essential.