Aloha and Media Access Techniques

SLOTTED ALOHA
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 1

Slotted ALOHA
 Slotted ALOHA was
introduced in 1972 by
Robert as an
improvement over
pure ALOHA.
 Here, time is divided
into discrete intervals
called slots,
corresponding to a
frame.

SLOTTED ALOHA
 Pure Aloha has a very high chance of hitting a frame, hence
the slotted Aloha is intended to outperform its efficiency.
 In slotted Aloha, the shared channel is split into fixed time
intervals called slots.
 As a result, if a station wants to send a frame to a shared
channel, it can only do so at the start of the slot, and only
one frame can be sent to each slot.
 Additionally, the station must wait until the beginning of the
slot for the subsequent transmission if it is unable to transfer
data at the beginning of the slot.
 However, sending a frame at the start of two or more station
time slots still carries the risk of a collision.

FIGURE:
 The figure shows how the channel is divided
into slots.
 A station can start its transmission only at the
start of the slot.
 So the only possible condition for collision is if
two or more stations start transmission in the
same slot.
 This condition is shown in Frame 1.2 of Station
1 and Frame 4.1 of Station 4.

Vulnerable Time for Slotted Aloha
 The Vulnerable Time

in the case of Slotted .
Aloha is equal to the
transmission time of
the station.
 The figure given
below shows the
Vulnerable time for
Slotted Aloha.
 It is because we bound the transmission of
stations with the slots.
Protocol Flow Chart for ALOHA

Throughput of Slotted ALOHA:
 The quantity of successful transmissions at each time slot
determines the throughput of the Slotted Aloha protocol.
 The Slotted Aloha protocol has a maximum throughput of
about 18.4%.
 This is because there is a significant risk of collisions when
numerous nodes try to transmit at the same time, which
causes missed packets and a decreased overall throughput.
 When less than or equal to 37% of the network’s total nodes
are actively transmitting data, the maximum throughput is
reached.
 Due to the high frequency of collisions, the throughput of
Slotted Aloha is typically substantially lower than 18.4% in
practice

Throughput of Slotted ALOHA:
The maximum throughput of a slotted ALOHA channel
is given by the formula:
Throughput (S) = G x e-G

The maximum Throughput occurs at G = 1,
i.e. S = 1/e = 0.368
Where:
G = the offered load (or the number of packets being
transmitted per time slot). The offered load is a
measure of the number of nodes attempting to
transmit in a given time slot.
Comparison of the throughput as a function of offered load
for Pure and Slotted ALOHA

Throughtput of slotted aloha
 The throughput is a function of the offered load and it
ranges from 0 to 1.
 As the offered load increases, the throughput decreases as
more collisions occur, resulting in less successful
transmissions.
 The maximum throughput is achieved when the offered load
is equal to 0.37 and it is approximately 0.184.
 It is important to note that the above equation assumes that
all the packets are of the same length and that the channel
is error-free.
 In practice, the throughput is usually much lower than this
due to a number of factors such as packet errors, channel
noise, and the overhead of retransmissions.
Assumption of Slotted ALOHA:
 All frames are of the same size.
 Time is divided into equal-sized slots, a slot
equals the time to transmit one frame
 Nodes start to transmit frames only at beginning
of slots.
 Nodes are synchronized.
 If two or more nodes transmit in a slot, all nodes
detect collision before the slot ends.

Advantages of Slotted ALOHA:
Simplicity: The Slotted Aloha protocol is relatively
simple to implement and understand, making it
an easy option for low-complexity networks.
Flexibility: Slotted Aloha can be used in a wide
range of network environments, including those
with varying numbers of nodes and varying
traffic loads
Low overhead: Slotted Aloha does not require
complex management or control mechanisms,
which can help to reduce the overhead and
complexity of the network.
Disadvantages of Slotted ALOHA:
Low throughput: The maximum throughput of the
Slotted Aloha protocol is relatively low at around
18.4%, which can be limiting for high-bandwidth
applications.
High collision rate: The high collision rate in
slotted ALOHA can result in a high packet loss
rate, which can negatively impact the overall
performance of the network.
Inefficiency: The protocol is inefficient at high
loads, as the efficiency decreases as the number
of nodes attempting to transmit increases.
Pure aloha v/s slotted aloha

CDMA
 It is a method of channel access and is an example of multiple
access as well.
 Multiple access states that data can be transmitted
simultaneously to a single communication channel through
several transmitters.
 CDMA (Code-Division Multiple Access) refers to any of several
protocols used in second-generation (2G) and third-generation
(3G) wireless communications.
 As the term implies, CDMA is a form of multiplexing, which
allows numerous signals to occupy a single transmission
channel, optimizing the use of available bandwidth.
 The technology is used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular
phone systems in the 800 megahertz (MHz) and 1.9 gigahertz
(GHz) bands.
CDMA

CDMA
 CDMA employs analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) in
combination with spread spectrum technology.
 Audio input is first digitized into binary elements. The
frequency of the transmitted signal is then made to vary
according to a defined pattern code.
 This enables the signal to be intercepted only by a
receiver whose frequency response is programmed
with the same code, following along with the transmitter
frequency.
 There are trillions of possible frequency sequencing
codes, which enhances privacy and makes cloning
difficult.
Features of CDMA
 At a defined time, it enables more users to communicate and
thus offers enhanced capacity for voice and data communication.
 Many of the channels in CDMA use a complete spectrum.
 To reduce interference & noise and thereby increase the
efficiency of the network, CDMA systems make use of power
control.
 To protect its signals, CDMA encodes user transmissions into
separate and special codes.
 The same frequency can also be used by all cells in CDMA
systems.
 There is also no fixed limit to the number of participants in a
CDMA system, but performance degrades with an increment in
the number of participants.

How does CDMA work?
 Cell clusters form the cellular structure of wireless
CDMA networks.
 Each cell in a cell cluster has a transceiver with the
necessary transmitting power and mobile units
distributed around the cell's coverage area.
 Every mobile unit runs a transceiver, which consists
of a low-power transmitter and a sensitive receiver
operating with a wireless cellular environment.
 The characteristics of the cellular environment
include multipath propagation, access interference
and fading.

How does CDMA work?
 The near-far (N-F) effect plays a significant role
in the quality of service (QoS) for CDMA
systems.
 It refers to a phenomenon that occurs when a
user near the base station sends out a
transmission that interferes with and
overpowers a weaker transmission signal
coming from a user further away.
 To this end, CDMA network providers use
receivers that are resistant to the N-F effect;
they also use tight power control schemes.
How does CDMA work?
 The CDMA channel is nominally 1.23 MHz wide.
 CDMA networks use a scheme called soft handoff, which
minimizes signal breakup as a handset passes from one cell to
another.
 The combination of digital and spread spectrum modes supports
several times as many signals per unit of bandwidth as analog
modes.
 CDMA is compatible with other cellular technologies; this
enables nationwide roaming.
 The original CDMA standard, also known as CDMA One, offers
a transmission speed of only up to 14.4 kilobits per second in its
single channel form and up to 115 Kbps in an eight-channel
form. CDMA2000 and Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA) deliver data
many times faster.
CDMA2000 standards:
The CDMA2000 family of standards include
single-carrier Radio Transmission
Technology (1xRTT),
Evolution-Data Optimized Release 0,
EVDO Revision A and EVDO Rev. B.
People often confuse CDMA2000, which is a
family of standards supported by Verizon and
Sprint, with CDMA, which is the physical layer
multiplexing scheme.

Difference between GSM and CDMA?

Which is better: CDMA or GSM?
With GSM networks, users can transmit data and make voice calls at
the same time, an impossible feat for CDMA networks.
But this is hardly the reason behind GSM's popularity.
 A big driver was Europe's 1987 law that required the use of GSM.
Another reason was that GSM resulted from an industry consortium,
while CDMA was, for the most part, owned by Qualcomm, making
GSM-powered devices cheaper to make and use.
 CDMA and GSM standards apply only to 2G and 3G connectivity.
 As the switch to fourth-generation wireless began in earnest in 2010,
carriers adopted Long-Term Evolution (LTE), the global standard for
4G networks. Consequently, the distinction between CDMA and GSM
is becoming less important as CDMA phones and devices powered
by GSM networks vanish into history.
 But, for now, 2G and 3G networks still serve as backups for areas
with weak 4G LTE signals.

CSMA
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CA

CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access)
 It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol
to sense the traffic on a channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the
data.
 It means that if the channel is idle, the station can send data to the
channel.
 Otherwise, it must wait until the channel becomes idle. Hence, it
reduces the chances of a collision on a transmission medium.
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) is a network protocol for carrier
transmission that operates in the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer.
 It senses or listens whether the shared channel for transmission is
busy or not, and transmits if the channel is not busy.
 Using CMSA protocols, more than one users or nodes send and
receive data through a shared medium that may be a single cable or
optical fiber connecting multiple nodes, or a portion of the wireless
spectrum.
Working Principle
 When a station has frames to transmit, it attempts to detect
presence of the carrier signal from the other nodes connected
to the shared channel.
 If a carrier signal is detected, it implies that a transmission is
in progress.
 The station waits till the ongoing transmission executes to
completion, and then initiates its own transmission. Generally,
transmissions by the node are received by all other nodes
connected to the channel.
 Since, the nodes detect for a transmission before sending
their own frames,collision of frames is reduced. However, if
two nodes detect an idle channel at the same time, they may
simultaneously initiate transmission. This would cause the
frames to garble resulting in a collision.

CSMA Access Modes
 1-Persistent
 Non-Persistent
 P-Persistent
 O- Persistent

CSMA Access Modes
1-Persistent: In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that
defines each node, first sense the shared channel and
if the channel is idle, it immediately sends the data.
Else it must wait and keep track of the status of the
channel to be idle and broadcast the frame
unconditionally as soon as the channel is idle.
Non-Persistent: It is the access mode of CSMA that
defines before transmitting the data, each node must
sense the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it
immediately sends the data. Otherwise, the station
must wait for a random time (not continuously), and
when the channel is found to be idle, it transmits the
frames.
CSMA Access Modes
P-Persistent: It is the combination of 1-Persistent and
Non-persistent modes. The P-Persistent mode
defines that each node senses the channel, and if
the channel is inactive, it sends a frame with a P
probability. If the data is not transmitted, it waits for a
(q = 1-p probability) random time and resumes the
frame with the next time slot.
O- Persistent: It is an O-persistent method that
defines the superiority of the station before the
transmission of the frame on the shared channel. If it
is found that the channel is inactive, each station
waits for its turn to retransmit the data.
What are the main types of CSMA
protocols?
There are three main types of CSMA protocols:
1) CSMA-CD (Collision Detection), which is
primarily used in Ethernet networks;
2) CSMA-CA (Collision Avoidance), which is used
in wireless networks; and
3) CSMA with implicit acknowledgment, which is
used in slotted networks like Token Ring.

CSMA/ CD
 It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection
network protocol to transmit data frames.
 The CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access
control layer. Therefore, it first senses the shared channel
before broadcasting the frames, and if the channel is idle, it
transmits a frame to check whether the transmission was
successful.
 If the frame is successfully received, the station sends
another frame.
 If any collision is detected in the CSMA/CD, the station
sends a jam/ stop signal to the shared channel to terminate
data transmission.
 After that, it waits for a random time before sending a frame
to a channel.
In the diagram, A starts sending the first bit of its frame at t1 and since C sees
the channel idle at t2, starts sending its frame at t2. C detects A’s frame at t3 and
aborts transmission. A detects C’s frame at t4 and aborts its transmission.
Transmission time for C’s frame is, therefore, t3-t2 and for A’s frame is t4-t1
So, the frame transmission time (Tfr) should be at least twice the maximum
propagation time (Tp). This can be deduced when the two stations involved in a
collision are a maximum distance apart.
Process: The entire process of collision Throughput
detection can be explained as follows: and
Efficiency:
The
throughput of
CSMA/CD is
much greater
than pure or
slotted
ALOHA.
For the 1-
persistent
method,
throughput is
50% when
G=1.
For the non-
persistent
method,
throughput
can go up to
90%.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
 The basic idea behind CSMA/CA is that the station should
be able to receive while transmitting to detect a collision
from different stations.
 In wired networks, if a collision has occurred then the
energy of the received signal almost doubles, and the
station can sense the possibility of collision.
 In the case of wireless networks, most of the energy is used
for transmission, and the energy of the received signal
increases by only 5-10% if a collision occurs.
 It can’t be used by the station to sense collision. Therefore
CSMA/CA has been specially designed for wireless
networks.
CSMA/ CA
 It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance
network protocol for carrier transmission of data frames.
 It is a protocol that works with a medium access control
layer. When a data frame is sent to a channel, it receives
an acknowledgment to check whether the channel is clear.
 If the station receives only a single (own)
acknowledgments, that means the data frame has been
successfully transmitted to the receiver.
 But if it gets two signals (its own and one more in which
the collision of frames), a collision of the frame occurs in
the shared channel. Detects the collision of the frame
when a sender receives an acknowledgment signal.

These are three types of strategies
 InterFrame Space (IFS): When a station finds the
channel busy it senses the channel again, when the
station finds a channel to be idle it waits for a period
of time called IFS time. IFS can also be used to
define the priority of a station or a frame. Higher the
IFS lower is the priority.
 Contention Window: It is the amount of time divided
into slots. A station that is ready to send frames
chooses a random number of slots as wait time.
 Acknowledgments: The positive acknowledgments
and time-out timer can help guarantee a successful
transmission of the frame.
Process: The entire process of collision avoidance
can be explained as follows:

Characteristics of CSMA/CA
 Carrier Sense
 Multiple Access
 Collision Avoidance
 Acknowledgment (ACK)
 Fairness
 Binary Exponential Backoff
 Interframe Spacing
 Adaptive Behavior

Advantages of CSMA
Increased efficiency
Simplicity
Flexibility
Low cost
Disadvantages of CSMA
Limited scalability
Delay
Limited reliability
Vulnerability to attacks
Comparisonof various protocols:

BTMA/DBTMA

Busy Tone Multiple Access
 Busy Tone Multiple Access (BTMA) is a
communication method used in wireless
networks to enable efficient sharing of
communication channels.
 In contrast to other access methods, BTMA relies
on the use of special tones, the so-called "busy
tones", to signal the occupancy of a channel.
 This innovative technology minimizes collisions
and interference, resulting in improved channel
utilization and increased overall performance in
wireless communication systems.
How it works
Here is a basic explanation of how it works:
 Generate busy tones: Each user who intends to use a communication
channel emits a special "busy tone". This tone serves as a signal to other
users to indicate that a device is currently using this channel.
 Channel Monitoring: Other users in the area continuously monitor the
available channels for the presence of busy tones. This is done to find out
which channels are currently occupied by other devices and which are
free.
 Channel Access: When a user needs a free channel, it searches for
channels without an active busy tone. Once such a channel is found, the
user can start communicating without any interference.
 Collision avoidance: Using busy tones minimizes the likelihood of
collisions. If multiple users try to use the same channel at the same time,
they can detect each other's busy tones and switch to another free
channel to prevent collisions.
 Dynamic Adjustment: BTMA allows dynamic channel allocation. Users
can update their busy tones to reflect changes in their communication
needs,
Sridhar Iyer allowing for flexible channel usage.
IIT Bombay 48
Effieciency of BTMA
 The efficiency of BTMA lies in the early detection
of channel occupancy through busy tones. This
not only reduces collisions, but also minimizes
channel allocation delays, which is particularly
beneficial in time-critical applications such as
cellular networks and wireless sensor networks.
 Overall, the way BTMA works enables efficient
and fair use of radio channels in wireless networks
and helps improve the overall performance and
reliability of wireless communication systems.

Areas of application
Some of the main areas where BTMA can be used are:
Mobile Networks: In mobile networks, especially in high traffic
areas such as urban environments, BTMA can help maximize
the capacity and efficiency of communication channels.
Wireless Sensor Networks: BTMA is useful in wireless
sensor networks where sensors collect and transmit data in
real time.
Industrial automation: In industrial environments, BTMA can
help ensure reliable and interference-free communication.
Ad hoc networks: BTMA can also be used in wireless ad hoc
networks where devices temporarily communicate with each
other without relying on prior infrastructure.
IoT Applications: In the Internet of Things (IoT), BTMA
techniques can help improve the efficiency of wireless
communication
Sridhar Iyer between IoT devices.
IIT Bombay 50
Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access
(DBTMA)
 Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access (DBTMA) is an
evolution of Busy Tone Multiple Access (BTMA)
technology.
 DBTMA is designed to further increase the
efficiency of using communication channels in
wireless networks and optimize performance.
 Essentially, DBTMA combines two different
types of busy tones to further coordinate
channel allocation and usage.

Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access
working?
How Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access works typically includes the following
aspects:
 Busy Tones for Sending and Receiving: In DBTMA, users use not only
one busy tone to indicate that they want to send, but also another busy tone
to indicate that they are ready to receive. This enables more sophisticated
signaling and coordination between sending and receiving.
 Channel Assignment: When a user is ready to transmit, they send out the
appropriate busy tone to indicate their desire to communicate. Other users
can recognize this sound and assign the channel accordingly.
 Collision avoidance: DBTMA further reduces collisions because there are
separate busy tones for sending and receiving. This means that users who
want to send will not conflict with users who only want to receive, and vice
versa.
 Dynamic Adjustment: Like BTMA, DBTMA allows busy tones to be
dynamically adjusted to reflect changes in users' communication needs.
This further increases the flexibility of the system.

THE DBTMA PROTOCOL
 In the DBTMA protocol, two narrow-bandwidth tones are
implemented with enough spectral separation on the single shared
channel. BTt (the transmit busy tone) and BTr (the receive busy
tone), indicate whether the node is transmitting RTS packets or
receiving data packets, respectively.
 The transmit busy tone (BTt) provides protection for the RTS
packets to increase the probability of successful RTS reception at
the intended receiver.
 We use the receive busy tone (BTr) to acknowledge the RTS
packet and provide continuous protection for the transmitted data
packets.
 All nodes sensing any busy tone are not allowed to send RTS
requests. When the start of the signal is sensed, a node sending
the RTS packet is required to abort such transmission immediately.
 Indeed, the RTS packets and the receive busy tone solve the
hidden- and the exposed-terminal problems.
The operation of the DBTMA protocol will be explained by the way
of a network example, shown in Fig. 2.
In this figure, a solid line between any two nodes indicates that the
nodes can hear each other.
Hence, node C is a hidden terminal to the transmission from node A to
node B, and node E is an exposed terminal, if it wants, for example, to
communicate with node F (but not with node A).

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SLOTTED ALOHA

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 The Vulnerable Time

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Throughput (S) = G x e-G

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