Introduction to Molecular

Biology
By: Muslim Bin Aqeel
The University of Lahore
 RECOMMENDED BOOKS
• Molecular Biology of the Cell, Bruce Albert, 6th Edition.
• ABC Of clinical genetics third edition.
• Lab manual on molecular biology by Ruhi Dixit.
• Molecular cloning a laboratory manual, Sambrook 3rd edition.
 Course Contents
1. Overview to Molecular Biology
2. Central Dogma
3. Structure of DNA and RNA
4. Function of DNA and RNA
 Overview to Molecular Biology
• The phenotype of an organism denotes its external appearance (size, color, intelligence,
etc.). Classical genetics showed that genes control the transmission of phenotype from one
generation to the next.
• Biochemistry showed that within one generation, proteins had a determining effect on
phenotype.
• For many years, however, the relationship between genes and proteins was a mystery.
Then, it was found that genes contain digitally encoded instructions that direct the synthesis
of proteins. The crucial insight of molecular biology is that hereditary information is passed
between generations in a form that is truly, not metaphorically, digital. Understanding how
that digital code directs the creation of life is the goal of molecular biology.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
 CENTRAL DOGMA
• DNA is constructed as a double-stranded molecule, with absolutely no
constraints upon the liner order of subcomponents along each strand, but
with the pairing between strands totally constrained according to
complementarity rules: A always pairs with T and C always pairs with G.
 STRUCTURE OF DNA
• The chemical DNA was first discovered in 1869, but its role in genetic
inheritance was not demonstrated until 1943. In 1953 James Watson and
Francis Crick, aided by the work of biophysicists Rosalind Franklin and
Maurice Wilkins, determined that the structure of DNA is a double-helix
polymer, a spiral consisting of two DNA strands wound around each other.
The breakthrough led to significant advances in scientists’ understanding
of DNA replication and hereditary control of cellular activities.
• A DNA molecule consists of two long polynucleotide chains composed of
four types of nucleotide subunits. Each of these chains is known as a DNA
chain, or a DNA strand. The coiling of the two strands around each other
creates two grooves in the double helix.
• Major groove, and
• Minor groove.
• The 3′ end carries an unlinked -OH group attached to the 3′ position on
the sugar ring; the 5′ end carries a free phosphate group attached to the 5′
position on the sugar ring.
• The nucleotides are linked together covalently by phosphodiester bonds
through the 3′-hydroxyl (-OH) group of one sugar and the 5′-phosphate
(P) of the next.
• Each turn of DNA is made up of 10.4 nucleotide pairs and the each turn of
helix is 3.4 nm while each pair placed at 0.34nm.
 Basic Structure of RNA
• The basic structure of RNA is shown in the figure below-
• The ribonucleic acid has all the components same to that of the DNA with
only 2 main differences within it. RNA has the same nitrogen bases called
the adenine, Guanine, Cytosine as that of the DNA except for the Thymine
which is replaced by the uracil. Adenine and uracil are considered as the
major building blocks of RNA and both of them form base-pair with the
help of 2 hydrogen bonds.
 RNA TYPES
tRNA – Transfer RNA
The transfer RNA is held responsible for choosing the correct protein or the amino acids required by the body in-turn
helping the ribosomes. It is located at the endpoints of each amino acid. This is also called as soluble RNA and it forms a
link between the messenger RNA and the amino acid.
rRNA-Ribosomal RNA
The rRNA is the component of the ribosome and are located within the in the cytoplasm of a cell, where ribosomes
are found. The Ribosomal RNA is primarily involved in the synthesis and translation of mRNA into proteins in all living
organisms. The rRNA is mainly composed of cellular RNA and are the most predominant RNA within the cells of all living
organisms.
mRNA – Messenger RNA
As the name itself tells, this RNA is responsible for carrying the genetic material to the ribosomes and insists as to what
kind of proteins is required by the body. Hence it is called messenger RNA. Usually, this m-RNA is involved in the process
of transcription or during the protein synthesis process.
Nucleosome Structure
 FORMS OF DNA
• DNA is a very flexible molecule and has the ability to exist in various
forms based on the environmental conditions.
• Naturally occurring DNA double helices are classified into A, B and Z-
types. A and B-forms of DNA are the right handed forms whereas Z-DNA
is the left handed form.
• When hydrated the DNA generally assumes B-form. The A conformation
is found when there is little water to interact with the helix and is also the
conformation adopted by the RNA.
Summary of structure and function of
DNA
 Functions of DNA
• Nucleic acids are the genetic material for all living cells.
• It is involved in the storage and transfer of genetic material from one
generation to the next.
• The genetic material of all the cells in a living organism is the same and
has all the information required for making an identical organism.
• Nucleic acids determine the phenotype of an organism.
 Functions of RNA
• The ribonucleic acid – RNA, which are mainly composed of nucleic acids, are involved in a variety of
functions within the cell and are found in all living organisms including bacteria, viruses, plants,
and animals. These nucleic acid functions as a structural molecule in cell organelles and are also involved
in the catalysis of biochemical reactions. The different types of RNA are involved in a various cellular
process. The primary functions of RNA:
• Facilitate the translation of DNA into proteins
• Functions as an adapter molecule in protein synthesis
• Serves as a messenger between the DNA and the ribosomes.
• They are the carrier of genetic information in all living cells
• Promotes the ribosomes to choose the right amino acid which is required in building up of new proteins
in the body.