ART AND POLITICS -

HUM 432

Lecturer Fırat ARAPOĞLU

E-mail:
firat.arapoglu@altinbas.edu.tr
The Industrial Revolution

A. An industrial revolution
1. From agriculture and craft to large-scale manufacturing
2. Capital-intensive enterprises
3. Urbanization
B. New forms of energy
1. Led to unprecedented economic growth
2. Altered the balance of humanity
C. Mechanization
1. Gains in productivity
2. Shifted the basis of the economy
3. New jobs
4. Did not dispense with human labor– the intensification of human labor
5. New social classes and new social tensions
The Industrial Revolution

D. “Industry” – from industriousness to an economic system

E. Partial causes
1. New territories
2. Economic expansion
3. Expanding networks of trade and finance
4. New markets for goods and sources for raw materials
5. Population growth

F. Regional variations: some regions more industrialized than others

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1760-1850

A. Why England?
1. Natural, economic, and cultural resources
2. Small and secure island
3. Empire
4. Ample supply of coal, rivers, and a developed canal system
5. The commercialization of agriculture
a. New techniques and crops, changes in property-holding
b. Yielded more food for a growing population
c. Concentration of property in fewer hands

6. Growing supply of available capital

a. Well-developed banking and credit institutions
b. London as leading center for international trade
The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1760-1850

A. Why England?
7. Investment and entrepreneurship
a. Pursuit of wealth was seen as a worthy goal
b. The British as a commercial people
8. Domestic and foreign markets
a. High levels of consumption in the British society
b. A well-integrated domestic market: good transportation
c. No system of internal tariffs
d. A constantly improving transportation system
9. Favorable political climate
a. Foreign policy responded to commercial needs of the nation
10. Production for export rose 80% between 1750 and 1770
11. The British merchant marine and navy: facilitated exports and economic expansion
The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1760-1850

B. Innovation in the textile industries

1. The British prohibited the import of East Indian cottons
2. Textile manufacturers imported raw cotton from India and the American south

3. Revolutionary breakthroughs
a. John Kay – the flying shuttle (1733)
b. John Hargreaves – the spinning jenny (1764)
c. Richard Arkwright – the water frame (1769)
d. Samuel Crompton – the spinning mule (1799)
e. Eli Whitney – the cotton gin (1793)
The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1760-1850

B. Innovation in the textile industries

4. Textile machines
a. First machines inexpensive enough to be used by spinners in their
homes
b. As machines grew in size, they were located in mills and factories
c. By 1780, British cotton textiles flooded the world market
5. A revolution in clothing
a. Cotton was, light, durable, and washable
b. Large domestic and foreign market for cotton cloth
6. The “tyranny” of the new industries
7. Factory working conditions and the factory acts
The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1760-1850
C. Coal and iron
1. Technological changes
a. Coke smelting, rolling, and puddling
b. Substitution of coal for wood Thomas Newcomen – fashions an
engine to pump water from mines (1711)
c. James Watt and Matthew Boulton – the steam engine
i. 289 engines were in use by 1800
D. The coming of railways
1. Stockton to Darlington line (1825)
2. Railway construction as enterprise
a. Risky but profitable
b. Global opportunities – building the infrastructure of nations
3. Work force and technology
4. Steam and speed as a new way of life
The Industrial Revolution on the Continent

A. A different model of industrialization

B. Reasons for the delay
1. Lack of raw materials, especially coal
2. Poor national systems of transportation
3. Little readily-accessible capital
4. Tenacity of the small peasant leaseholder
5. The French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars
C. Economic changes after 1815
1. Population growth (parts of France, Belgium, Rhineland, Saxony, Silesia, and
Bohemia)
2. New railway construction
3. Older methods of production persisted alongside factory work
The Industrial Revolution on the Continent

C. Economic changes after 1815

4. Governments played a major role in subsidizing industry
a. Subsidies to private companies (railroads and mining)
b. Incentives for and laws favorable to industrialization

5. Mobilizing capital
a. Joint-stock investment banks
i. Société Générale (Belgium, 1830s)
ii. Creditanstalt (Austria, 1850s)
iii. Crédit Mobilier (1850s)

6. Promoting invention and technological development

a. State-established educational systems
The Industrial Revolution on the Continent

D. Industrialization after 1850

1. Individual British factories remained small but output was tremendous

a. British iron industry became the largest in the world

2. Continental changes
a. Mostly in transport, commerce, and government policy
b. Governments accepted free trade and the removal of trade barriers
c. Guild controls were relaxed or abolished
d. Communications
i. Transatlantic cable (1865)
ii. Telephone (1876)
e. New chemical processes, dyestuffs, and pharmaceuticals in textiles
The Industrial Revolution on the Continent
D. Industrialization after 1850

2. Continental changes
f. New sources of energy – electricity and oil
g. Internal combustion engine (Carl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler, 1880s)
h. Eastern Europe
i. Developed into concentrated, commercialized agriculture
ii. The persistence of serfdom

3. The industrial “core”

a. Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, and Switzerland

4. The industrial “periphery”

a. Russia, Spain, Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Romania, and Serbia
The Industrial Revolution on the Continent

E. Industry and empire

1. European nations began to expand their economic influence over other

countries
2. When they could not make trade agreements, used military power
3. New networks of trade and interdependence (between Europe and colonies)

4. The world economy divided

a. Producers of manufactured goods (Europe)
b. Suppliers of raw materials and buyers of final goods (everyone else)

5. Toward a global economy

The Social Consequences of Industrialization
A. Population
1. Europe: 205 million (1800), 274 million (1850), 414 million (1900), 480 million
(1914)
2. Explanations
a. Fatal diseases spread less: medical accomplishments
b. Spread of vaccination in the 19th century
c. Improved sanitation
d. Governments became more concerned to improve the lives of their people
e. Foods with high nutritional value became less expensive
f. Rising fertility
i. Men and women married earlier
ii. Rural manufacture allowed couples to marry and set up households
iii. More people married
The Social Consequences of Industrialization
B. Life on the land: the peasantry

1. Rural poverty
a. Harsh conditions of the countryside
b. Millions of tiny farms produced a bare subsistence
c. Rising population put pressure on the land
d. Unpredictability of weather and the harvest

2. Great Famine of 1845-1849

a. Potato blight
i. No alternative food source
b. At least one million Irish died of starvation
c. Forced 1.5 million people to leave Ireland (mostly to USA)
The Social Consequences of Industrialization

B. Life on the land: the peasantry

3. The role of the State

a. Became more sympathetic to commercialized agriculture
b. Encouraged the elimination of small farms and the creation of larger
farms
c. Encouraged the abolition of serfdom

4. Serfdom
a. land owners and serfs had little incentive to improve farming or land
management
b. Serfdom made it difficult to buy and sell land freely
c. An obstacle to the commercialization and consolidation of agriculture
The Social Consequences of Industrialization

B. Life on the land: the peasantry

5. Industrialization in the countryside
a. Improved communication networks
b. Government intervention in the countryside
c. Centralized bureaucracies
i. Made it easier to collect taxes and conscript soldiers from peasant
families

6. Rural violence
a. Captain Swing, southern England (1820s)
b. Insurrections against landlords, taxes, and laws curtailing customary rights
c. Russian serf uprisings as a result of bad harvests and exploitation
d. Governments seemed incapable of dealing with rural discontent
The Social Consequences of Industrialization

C. The urban landscape

1. Growth of cities
2. London's population grew from 676,000 (1750) to 2.3 million (1850), Paris from
560,000 to 1.3 million
3. Overcrowding and poor sanitation
4. Construction of housing lagged behind population growth
5. Governments passed some legislation to rid cities of slums

D. Industry and environment in the nineteenth century

1. Air pollution
2. Water pollution
3. Fertile breeding grounds for cholera, typhus, and tuberculosis
The Social Consequences of Industrialization

E. Sex in the city

1. Prostitution
a. Seen as one of the dangers and corruptions of urban life

2. The problems of the cities posed dangers that were not just social but political

3. Social surveys and studies about urban life

4. Critics of the urban scene in literature:

a. Victor Hugo (1802-1885)
b. Charles Dickens (1812-1870)
c. Honoré de Balzac (1799-1850)
The Middle Classes

A. Aristocracy vs. bourgeoisie

1. The French and Industrial Revolutions had replaced one aristocracy with
another
a. From rank, status, and privilege to wealth and social class
B. Who were the middle classes?
1. Not a homogenous group in terms in income or occupation
2. Upward mobility impossible without education
a. Easier in Britain than on the continent
3. The examination system!
4. “Getting ahead”!
a. Intelligence, pluck (luck), and hard work
b. Samuel Smiles, Self-Help (1859)!
The Middle Classes
B. Who were the middle classes?
5. Respectability: middle class morals
a. A code of behavior
b. Financial independence
c. Providing for family
d. The avoidance of gambling and debt
e. Merit and character
f. Hard work
g. Live modestly and soberly
6. These were aspirations, not social realities

C. Private life and middle-class identity

1. The importance of family
2. A well-governed household was seen as an antidote to the confusion of the
business world
The Middle Classes

D. Gender and the cult of domesticity

1. The respectable home
a. Rituals, hierarchies, and distinctions that identified middle class life
b. Women were responsible for creating a respectable home
2. The “separate sphere”
a. Women were supposed to live in subordination to men
b. Boys educated in secondary schools, girls educated at home
c. The idea of legal inequality between men and women
3. Middle class identity – neither aristocratic nor working class values
4. The “angel in the house”
a. Middle class women to be free from unrelenting work
b. Responsible for the moral education of children
The Middle Classes
D. Gender and the cult of domesticity
5. The “cult of domesticity”
a. Central to middle class Victorian thinking about women
b. Keeping the household functioning smoothly and harmoniously
c. The servant as the mark of middle class status

6. Outside the home

a. Few options to earn a living for women
b. Voluntary societies and campaigns for social reform
c. Protestantism and charity
d. Florence Nightingale (1820-1910)

7. Queen Victoria (r. 1837-1901)

a. Reflected contemporary feminine virtues of moral devotion and dutiful
domesticity
b. Embodied middle class virtues
The Middle Classes

E. “Passionlessness”: gender and sexuality

1. Victorian sexuality usually seen as synonymous with anxiety and prudishness

2. Scientists taught that specific characteristics were inherent to each sex

a. Men and woman had different roles
b. Auguste Comte and “biological philosophy”

3. Woman's moral superiority embodied in their “passionlessness”

The Middle Classes

F. Middle-class life in public

1. Houses and furnishings as symbols of material prosperity

a. Solidly built and heavily decorated
b. Homes were built to last
c. Rooms crowded with furniture, art, carpets, and wall hangings

2. Suburban life
a. Moved outside of cities
b. Lived away from the city but managed the affairs of their city

3. Leisure: appearance of urban entertainments

Working-Class Life
A. General observations
1. Working classes divided into several subgroups
a. Based on skill, wages, gender, and workplace
2. Some movement from unskilled to skilled (required children with education)
3. Movement from skilled to unskilled due to technological change
4. Housing was unhealthy and unregulated
B. Working-class women in the industrial landscape
1. Problems observed
a. Children left unattended
b. Long working hours
c. Industrial accidents
d. Women laboring alongside men
2. Women were always a part of work force but industrialization made it more
visible
Working-Class Life
B. Working-class women in the industrial landscape

3. Women workers were paid less

a. Most began to work at age 10 or 11
b. They put their children out to nurses or brought them to the mills

4. Gender division of labor

a. Most women labored at home or in small workshops (“sweatshops”)
b. Domestic service
i. Less visible
ii. Low wages
iii. Coercive sexual relationships

5. Working class sexuality

a. Different from middle class counterpart
b. Increase in illegitimate births
c. Weaker family ties
d. The collapse of the family?
Working-Class Life

C. A life apart: “class” consciousness

1. The factory created common experiences and difficulties for workers
a. No personal relation with the production
b. Guild protections abolished
c. Decline of apprenticeship
d. Little personal interaction between workers
2. The factory
a. Long hours under dirty and dangerous conditions
b. The imposition of new routines and discipline
i. The factory whistle
ii. The pace of the machine
iii. The division of labor into specialized steps
iv. Machinery as the new tyrant
Working-Class Life
C. A life apart: “class” consciousness
3. Working class vulnerability
a. Unemployment, sickness, accidents, and family problems
b. The varying price of food
c. Seasonal unemployment
d. Cyclical economic depressions
e. Severe agricultural depressions

4. Working class survival

a. Families worked several small jobs
b. Joined self-help societies and fraternal associations
c. Early socialist movement
5. Social segregation of the city
a. Implied that working people lived a life apart from others
b. Class differences were embedded in experience and beliefs
Conclusion

A. The Industrial Revolution as major turning point in the history of the

world

B. The change in the global balance of power

C. Technology equated with progress

D. The new wealth and the new poverty

E. Social identities and class consciousness