Techniques of Knowledge

Representation
Techniques of Knowledge Representation
1. Logical Representation
2. Semantic Representation
3. Frames Representation
4. Production Rules
 Logical Representation
Premise: If it is raining, the ground is
Logic? wet. Observation: It is raining.
Conclusion: Therefore, the ground is wet.

Logic is the study of valid reasoning

 Logical Representation
Logical representation is a language with some definite rules which deal
with propositions and has no ambiguity in representation
Example: Statement: "Flying planes can be dangerous."
The two meanings are:
"It can be dangerous for a person to fly planes" -- perhaps because they might have an accident, crash the plane, etc.
"Planes that are flying in the air can be dangerous" -- perhaps because they might come crashing down on you, run
into other planes, etc.

*proposition - a statement or assertion that expresses a judgement or opinion.

(Example - "the proposition that high taxation is undesirable“)
Logical Representation
There are two types of Logical Representation:

Propositional logic Predicate logic

1. Propositional Logic
A declarative statement either TRUE or FALSE, but not both.

Propositions Not Propositions

2+2=4 - TRUE 1 + 1 > x - UNKNOWN
2 + 2 > 6 – FALSE What a great book! - UNKNOWN
John likes patient care - TRUE Is your car red? - UNKNOWN
Sam has a PhD - False Where is the Eiffel Tower? - UNKNOWN
1. Propositional Logic

• Concerned with the TRUTH and FALSE.

Arnold is a RA and Arnold is a Magician FALSE

TRUE FALSE
Propositional Variables
• “2 + 2 = 4” = P TRUE
• John likes patient care = Q TRUE
• “1 + 1 > 3” = R FALSE

Symbols

Variables that are used to represent propositions are called Propositional variables
Propositional Variables

Sentence: “Adam is good in playing football and this time he is representing his
college at National Level”

P = Adam is good in playing football

Q = This time he is representing his college at National Level

P^Q
P and Q
Propositional Logic : Connectives
• Also called as : Logical Operators [Logical operators are generally used
for combining two or more relational statements. They return Boolean
values.]

• The Connectives:
• Conjunction (^, &): AND
• Disjunction (V , |): OR
• Negation (¬, ~): NOT
• Implication (->, ⇒): IF….THEN
• Biconditional (↔ , ⇔) IF AND ONLY IF
Propositional Sentence : A statement obtained by using connectives

P^Q
Connectives : 1) Negation
• Let P be a proposition, ¬P is called negation of P which simply states
that “If P is true then ¬P is false. If P is false then ¬P is true.”
• Example:
• P = “Arjun's dog has a black tail”

• ¬P = ?
P ¬P
True False
False True
¬P = “Arjun's dog does not
have a black tail”
Connectives : 2) Conjunction
• Let P and Q be two propositions, Conjunction of P and Q is denoted
by P ^ Q
• When both P and Q are true then only the compound proposition*
P^Q are true.
Example: “12 is divisible by 3 and 3 is a prime P Q P^Q
number” T T T
T F F
P = 12 is divisible by 3 = ?
Q = 3 is a prime number = ? F T F
F F F
P^Q=?
*A compound proposition is a proposition that involves the assembly of multiple statements
Connectives : 3) Disjunction
• Let P and Q be two propositions, Disjunction of P or Q is denoted by P
VQ

Example: “10 - 6 = 1 or 5 is a odd number” P Q PVQ

T T T
P = (10 -6 =1) = ? T F T
Q = 5 is a odd number = ?
F T T
PVQ=? F F F
*A compound proposition is a proposition that involves the assembly of multiple statements
Connectives : 4) Implication
• Let P and Q be propositions. The proposition “if P then Q” denoted by
P->Q is called implication or conditional statement.

P Q P->Q
T T T
P is called hypothesis (or premise) and Q is T F F
called conclusion (or consequence) F T T
F F T
 Connectives : 4) Implication
• Example 1:
• “If you try hard for your exam, then you will succeed”

P Q

P = you tried hard for your exam

Q = You succeed
P Q P->Q
T T T
Case 1: “You tried hard for your exam” and “You succeed” [P=True, Q=True] T F F
P -> Q = TRUE
Case 2: “You tried hard for your exam” but “You failed” [P=True, Q=False] F T T
P -> Q = FALSE
F F T
 Connectives : 4) Implication
• Example 1:
• “If you try hard for your exam, then you will succeed”

P Q

P = you tried hard for your exam

Q = You succeed
P Q P->Q
Case 3: “You haven’t tried hard for your exam” and “You succeed” [P=False, Q=True] T T T
P -> Q = TRUE, Why?
Because you can make the compound proposition false only when you satisfy the first T F F
condition itself i.e P. If that itself is not satisfied then we cannot make compound
proposition False. F T T
Case 4: “You haven’t tried hard for your exam” and “You failed” [P=False, Q=False] F F T
P -> Q = TRUE [Reason same as above]
 Connectives : 4) Implication
• Example 2:
• “If you have connection with seniors, then you will get promoted”

P Q
T T P->Q = T
T F P->Q = F
F T P->Q = T
P Q P->Q
F F P->Q = T
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
 Connectives : 4) Implication
• Example 3:
• “If you get 100% marks in the final exam, then you will be awarded a Trophy”

P Q
T T P->Q = T
T F P->Q = F
F T P->Q = T
P Q P->Q F P->Q = T
F
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Connectives : 4) Implication

• Applying What We've Learned: Problem-Solving Session

1. If 2+2 = 3, then cats can fly
2. If 2+2 = 4, then cats can fly
3. If hippopotamus can fly, then 1+1 =3
4. If 1+1 = 2, then 2+2 =5
5. If Bangalore is the capital of Karnataka, then Delhi is the capital of India

1) T, 2) F, 3) T, 4) F, 5) T.
Connectives : 4) Implication

• Different ways to represent Implication / conditional statement:

• “if P then Q”
• “P implies Q”
• “Q when P” [cats can fly when 2+2 = 4]
• “Q whenever P” [cats can fly whenever 2+2 = 4]
• “Q follows from P” [Dolphins have lungs follows from the fact that all
mammals have lungs]
New bot in town!
Connectives : 4) Implication – Converse, Contrapositive and
Inverse
• From the implication P -> Q we can form new conditional
statements:
1. Converse = Q -> P [Opposite of implication P -> Q]
2. Contrapositive = ¬Q -> ¬P
3. Inverse = ¬P -> ¬Q

Example: If it rains today, then I will stay at home

1. Converse = If I will stay at home then it rains today

2. Contrapositive = If I will not stay at home then it does not rain today
3. Inverse = If it does not rain today, then I will not stay at home
Connectives : 4) Implication – Converse, Contrapositive and
Inverse
CONTRAPOSITIVE INVERSE

P Q P->Q ¬P ¬Q ¬Q -> ¬P ¬ P -> ¬ Q

T T T F F T T
T F F F T F T
F T T T F T F
F F T
T T T T
P -> Q [IMPLICATION]

P Q Q->P FACTS:
T T T 1. Implication and Contrapositive both are
T F T Q -> P equivalent
[CONVERSE] 2. Converse and Inverse both are equivalent
F T F
3. Neither Converse nor Inverse is equivalent to
F F T Implication
 Connectives : 4) Implication – Converse,
Contrapositive and Inverse
• Applying What We've Learned: Problem-Solving Session – State the
converse, contrapositive and inverse of the following statement:
1. If you receive ‘A’ grade in Artificial Intelligence then, you will be
awarded a scholarship
2. If exercise is good for health then, I will go the park
Solutions: Solutions:
1. Converse: if you are awarded a scholarship then 1. Converse: If I will go to the park, then exercise is
you have received ‘A’ grade in Artificial good for health.
Intelligence 2. Contrapositive: If I will not go to the park then
2. Contrapositive: if you will not be awarded a exercise is not good for health.
scholarship then you didn’t receive A grade in AI 3. Inverse: If exercise is not good for health then I'm
3. Inverse: if you didn’t receive A grade in AI then not going to the park.
you will not be awarded a scholarship
 Connectives : 5) Biconditional
• Let P and Q be two propositions, the biconditional statement of the
form P ↔ Q is the proposition, “P if and only if Q”
• P ↔ Q is true whenever the truth values of P and Q are same.

Example: P Q P↔Q
Let P = “You get promoted” T T T
Q = “You have connections” T F F
F T F
P ↔ Q = “You get promoted if and only if you F F T
have connections”
 Connectives : 5) Biconditional
• Applying What We've Learned: Problem-Solving Session – Write each
of the proposition in the form “P if and only if Q”:
1. It rains if it is a weekend day, and it is a weekend day if it rains
2. The trains run late on exactly those days when I book the ticket
3. For you to get an “A” in this course, it is necessary and sufficient
that you attend AI classes regularly.

Solutions:
1. It rains if and only if it is a weekend day
2. The trains run late if and only if I book the ticket
3. You can get an “A” in this course if and only if you attend AI classes regulary
Precedence of Logical Operators

Operator Precedence
() - Paranthesis 1
¬ 2
^ 3
V 4
-> 5
↔ 6
Computing Truth Tables
P Q
T T
T T
T F
T F
F T
F T
F F
F F
Step 1: Declare Variables and its
various states
P V Q -> ¬R
R ¬R
T F
F T
T F
F T
T F
F T
T F
F T
Step 2: Step 3: Precedence
Precedence Rule 1
PVQ PVQ -> ¬R
T F
T T
T F
T T
T F
T T
F T
F T
Step 4: Finally compute
Rule 3 the entire statement