The Cell Cycle and Mitosis

Learning Objectives: By the end of the lesson...

Know that a locus is the location of genes on

a chromosome

Understand the linkage of genes on a

chromosome.

Understand the role of mitosis and the cell

cycle in producing genetically identical
daughter cells for growth and asexual
reproduction
 Cells make new cells

Why?!
Multicellular organisms need a cell
cycle in order to help the organism to
grow and for cells to divide.
Growth Repair
When a sperm and ovum fuse For cells that die or are damaged,
together they form a zygote. The new cells need to be produced
chromosomes in a zygote carry all
the genetic
information
to form a whole
new organism.
The zygote divides
to make all
the cells in the
new organism

Asexual reproduction
Only one parent is needed, all the offspring produced are
identical to the parent. It enables 1 organism to produce
many offspring very quickly
 The Cell Cycle
Pay attention to the video, you need to be able to
explain what happens in each stage of the cell
cycle.
 Mitosis has 4
division stages INTERPHASE
Period of cell growth; cell prepares cell for
cell division (mitosis); genetic material
(DNA) is copied and checked for errors –
G1
prevents mutations being passed on
No apparent activity
S phase
New organelles and proteins are made
Divided into three phases (G1, S, and
CELL G2 phase)
G2
CYCLE
MITOSIS (M)
Process by which a nucleus divides into
two – each with an identical set of
chromosomes – the nuclei are genetically
Mitosis (M) identical
Four phases – prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase
Followed by cytokinesis – division of
the cell into two genetically identical
daughter cells
Two daughter cells – genetically identical
Most of a cell’s life is spent in interphase
In this phase you
cannot see the
chromosomes with
a light microscope.
This is because the
DNA is ‘unwound’
and spread out in
the nucleus. They
cannot be easily
identified as
individual
structures
 The Cell Cycle
proteins for cell division are
G2 - Second growth
phase - short
Short gap before mitosis
(cell division)
Cytoskeleton of cell
breaks down and the
protein microtubule
components begin to
assemble into spindle
fibres – required for cell
division
DNA content = 40
S - Replication phase
DNA replication – this
must occur if mitosis is
to take place
The cell enters this
phase only if cell division
is to follow
DNA content = 40
Cell keeps growing and
Cytokinesis – cell
made divides into two
DNA content = 20
G1 - First growth phase –
longest phase
Protein synthesis – cell “grows”
Most organelles volume of
cytoplasm increases,
Cell differentiation occurs.
Length depends on internal
and external factors
If cell is not going to divide
again it remains in this phase
DNA content = 20 (arbitrary)
Cell replicates its
DNA (ready to
Cell growth and new
divide by mitosis)
organelles and proteins made
G1 + S + G2 = INTERPHASE
No apparent observable activity
 Mitosis TASK
CONSTRUCT A TABLE WITH IMAGES AND AN EXPLANATION OF WHAT
HAPPENS IN EACH OF THE FOUR STAGES OF MITOSIS.

THE EXPLANATIONS CAN BE BULLET POINTS-KEEP IT SIMPLE!

 A way to remember…
Interphase I
Prophase Pee
Metaphase Mainly
Anaphase After
Telophase Tea

iPMATc
Interphase-

PROPHASE

METAPHASE

ANAPHASE

TELOPHASE
 Interphase
• Cell not dividing
• Cell carrying out functions
• Chromosomes replicate forming sister chromatids.
• New proteins, cytoplasm and organelles are synthesised.
 Prophase (present)
• Chromosomes condense and coils
(and can take up stains becoming
visible.)
• Nucleolus breaks down and centrioles
pull apart to form a spindle.
 When cells start to actively divide the chromosomes condense –
become shorter and denser
The DNA is wound around protein molecules called histones.

The DNA winds to form dense clusters called nucleosomes. These interact to
produce more coiling and supercoiling, called chromosomes.
Prophase
 Metaphase (middle)
• Nuclear membrane has broken down.
• Centrioles have migrated to opposite ends of the cell.
• Chromatids line up along the equator
• Each centromere associated with a spindle fibre.
Metaphase
 Anaphase (apart)
• Microtubules attached the centromeres contract, using ATP
• Chromatids are pulled to the opposite poles of the cell by their centromere
• This process takes a matter of minutes
 Telophase (two)
• Daughter chromosomes reach poles
• The chromosomes unwind and become more difficult to see.
• Spindle fibres break down
• Nuclear membrane reappears
• Each centriole divides so that each daughter cell has two centrioles
Anaphase

Telophase
Cytokinesis

Division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis) into two equal parts follows mitosis
A “waist” forms in the middle of the cell. Eventually, the plasma membrane from one
side of the cell joins that of the opposite side of the cell and the two new cells separate.
The two daughter cells are genetically identical.
The equator of the cell is constricted by a ring of contractile proteins (actin) in the
process of cleavage, to create two cells.

In plant cells, the Golgi apparatus and associated secretory vesicles assemble at the
equator. Their contents are deposited to form a plate (the cell plate). Some vesicles
remain intact and make connecting channels, termed plasmodesmata, through the
new cell wall.
 Cytokinesis – follows Mitosis
Cell plate
Cytoplas (plant cells)
m

Cleavage
Furrow

Cell organelles
Contractile
Proteins
Mitosis in Action
 Mitosis – bone cell slides
1 2

Cells
Parent cell Chromosomes split
copied
3 4 5

Copies separating 2 daughter cells

Plants

apical
meriste
m
Rat – epithelial cells
prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
Method:

1. Cut the tip from a growing too (e.g. of a broad bean). It should be about
5mm long.
2. Place the root tip on a watch glass and add a few drops of HCl
3. Add a few drops of stain so that the chromosomes become darker and
easier to see with a microscope e.g. toludine blue or acetic orcein
4. Warm the watch glass (do not boil the liquid) by passing it slowly through
a Bunsen flame.
5. Place the root tip on a microscope slide and use a mounted needle to break
it open, spread the cells out thinly
6. Add a few more drops of stain and place a cover slip over it.
7. Squash the cover slip down gently
8. Warm the slide again for a few seconds, this will intensify the stain.
9. Look at the cells under a light microscope.
Chromosomes

A duplicated and condensed eukaryotic chromosome with two sister chromatids

Homologous Chromosomes

Chromosomes occur in pairs – there are 23

pairs of chromosomes. Each pair consists
of a chromosome from the male (father) and
one from the female (mother). The
chromosomes that make up each pair of the
22 pairs are the same size and have the
same or alternative versions of genes for
particular characteristics. Each individual
pair of similar chromosomes is called a
homologous pair.
 Mitosis takes place in the
following:
•Replacement of cells - outer layer of skin – replacement of epidermal cells; red blood
cells; intestinal lining cells
•Growth of tissues by producing new extra cells – e.g. epithelial tissue; plant meristem
cells (stem and root growth).
•Division of zygote into a multicellular organism – in which, all cells are genetically
identical.
•Formation of clones of T and B lymphocytes and plasma cells in the immune
response
•Asexual reproduction - mitosis produces individual organisms which are genetically
identical to each other (clones) and the parent cell – e.g. binary fission in bacteria;
budding in yeast.
•The production of genetically identical cells in multicellular organisms allows certain
cells to retain the ability to develop into any other type if needed as a result of damage.
•Sometimes, abnormal cells divide by mitosis in an uncontrolled way – giving rise to
tumours, and if the cells are malignant, cancers.
“The dance of the chromosomes”
• Walter Flemming – first to describe the
movement of the chromosomes in mitosis –
work published in 1882

• Did not know the work of Mendel – did not

realise what he was seeing. Flemming’s
discoveries since become regarded as some of
the most important work in cell biology
Before a cell divides, its chromosomes are copied exactly in INTERPHASE.
This process is called replication; ATP is synthesised – provides energy for
cell division; organelles are replicated and proteins are made

PROPHASE
The DNA of each chromosome is copied to form two chromatids (“sister”
chromosomes); chromosomes condense – becoming shorter and fatter –
visible under LM; nuclear envelope breaks down; chromosomes lie freely in
cytoplasm; centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell, forming protein
(tubulin) fibres across it called a spindle – fibres extend to the equator of the
cell

METAPHASE
Chromosomes line up at the equator; the spindle fibres from each pole
become attached to the centromere of the chromosomes

ANAPHASE
The spindle fibres contract; the centromeres are split and the pairs of sister
chromatids are separated and dragged to opposite poles assuming a “V”
shape – the centromeres lead; a complete set of chromosomes is therefore
found at each pole; energy (ATP) is required

TELOPHASE
Chromatids reach their respective poles and uncoil – become thin and long
again – now called chromosomes again – no longer visible under LM;
spindle fibres break down; nuclear envelope forms around each group of
chromosomes – forming two nuclei; cytokinesis follows – cytoplasm divides
and a plasma membrane forms two form two individual cells; cell enters
interphase once again
Instructions:

1. Cut out and sort the diagrams

into the 5 stages of mitosis
2. Glue onto a sheet, for each one
you must
a) Label each part
b) State if the
chromosome content is
n, 2n or 4n
c) Write a description of
the events at the stage
3. Is this mitotic event in an animal
or a plant cell? How do you
know?
4. What are the consequences if
mistakes occur during cell
division
5. Mitosis produces daughter cells
that are identical to the parent
cells. Why?

Instructions:

1. Cut out and sort the diagrams

into the 5 stages of mitosis
2. Glue onto a sheet, for each one
you must
a) Label each part
b) State if the
chromosome content is
n, 2n or 4n
c) Write a description of
the events at the stage
3. Is this mitotic event in an animal
or a plant cell? How do you
know?
4. What are the consequences if
mistakes occur during cell
division
5. Mitosis produces daughter cells
that are identical to the parent
cells. Why?