Ceramics, Polymers, Composites

CERAMICS
-Introduction to Ceramics
-Structure and Properties of Ceramics
-Processing of Ceramics
 Introduction to Ceramics
The term ceramic comes from the Greek word keramikos, which
means “burnt stuff,” indicating that desirable properties of
these materials are normally achieved through a high
temperature heat treatment process called firing.
Compounds containing metallic (or semi-metallic) and
nonmetallic elements.
• Typical nonmetallic elements are oxygen, nitrogen,
and carbon
• For processing, ceramics divide into:
1. Crystalline ceramics – includes:
• Traditional ceramics, such as clay, and modern
ceramics, such as alumina (Al2O3)
2. Noncrystalline Ceramics i.e. Glasses – mostly
based on silica (SiO2)
The glasses are a familiar group of ceramics.
containers, lenses, and fiberglass represent typical applications.
Glasses are noncrystalline silicates containing other oxides,
notably CaO, Na2O, K2O, and Al2O3, which influence the glass properties.

A typical soda–lime glass consists of approximately 70 wt% SiO2, the balance

being mainly Na2O (soda) and CaO (lime).
Glass-ceramic materials have been designed to have the following characteristics:
relatively high mechanical strengths; low coefficients of thermal expansion (to avoid
thermal shock); relatively high temperature capabilities; good dielectric properties
(for electronic packaging applications); and good biological compatibility. Some
glass-ceramics may be made optically transparent; others are opaque.
 Clay Products
One of the most widely used ceramic raw materials is clay. This inexpensive
ingredient, found naturally in great abundance, often is used as mined without
any upgrading of quality. Another reason for its popularity lies in the ease with
which clay products may be formed; when mixed in the proper proportions, clay
and water form a plastic mass that is very amenable to shaping. The formed
piece is dried to remove some of the moisture, after which it is fired at an
elevated temperature to improve its mechanical strength.
Clay is a finely-grained natural rock Clay minerals group
or soil material that combines one
or more clay minerals with possible Halloysite – Al2Si2O5(OH)4
traces of quartz (SiO2), metal oxides Kaolinite – Al2(OH)4Si2O5
(Al2O3 , MgO etc.) and Illite – (K,H3O)(Al,Mg,Fe)2(Si,Al)4O10[(OH)2,
organic matter. (H2O)]
Montmorillonite –
(Na,Ca)0.33(Al,Mg)2Si4O10(OH)2·nH2O
Vermiculite –
(MgFe,Al)3(Al,Si)4O10(OH)2·4H2O
Talc – Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
Sepiolite – Mg4Si6O15(OH)2·6H2O
Palygorskite (or attapulgite) –
Kaolinite (Mg,Al)2Si4O10(OH)·4(H2O)
Most of the clay-based products fall within two broad classifications:
Structural clay products and the whitewares

Structural clay products include building bricks, tiles, and sewer pipes- found
applications in which structural integrity is important.

The whiteware ceramics become white after the high-temperature firing.

Included in this group are
porcelain, pottery, tableware, china, and plumbing fixtures (sanitary ware)

In addition to clay, many of these products also contain nonplastic ingredients,

which influence the changes that take place during the drying and firing
processes, and the characteristics of the finished piece.

Pages 518-19 for some more characteristics of clay

Refractories
Another important class of ceramics that are used in large tonnages is the
refractory ceramics. The salient properties of these materials include the
capacity to withstand high temperatures without melting or decomposing and
the capacity to remain unreactive and inert when exposed to severe
environments. In addition, the ability to provide thermal insulation is often an
important consideration.
Refractory materials are marketed in a variety of forms, but bricks are the
most common.
Typical applications include furnace linings for metal refining, glass
manufacturing, metallurgical heat treatment, and power generation.
Of course, the performance of a refractory ceramic depends to a large
degree on its composition. On this basis, there are several classifications—

fireclay, silica, basic, and special refractories

Abrasives
Abrasive ceramics are used to wear, grind, or cut away other material, which
necessarily is softer. Therefore, the prime requisite for this group of materials is
hardness or wear resistance; in addition, a high degree of toughness is
essential to ensure that the abrasive particles do not easily fracture.
Furthermore, high temperatures may be produced from abrasive frictional
forces, so some refractoriness is also desirable.
Diamonds, both natural and synthetic, are utilized as abrasives; however, they
are relatively expensive. The more common ceramic abrasives include
silicon carbide, tungsten carbide (WC), aluminum oxide (or corundum), and
silica sand.
Abrasives are used in several forms—bonded to grinding wheels, as coated
abrasives, and as loose grains. In the first case, the abrasive particles are
bonded to a wheel by means of a glassy ceramic or an organic resin. The
surface structure should contain some porosity; a continual flow of air currents
or liquid coolants within the pores that surround the refractory grains prevents
excessive heating
Coated abrasives are those in which an abrasive powder is coated on some
type of paper or cloth material; sandpaper is probably the most familiar
example. Wood, metals, ceramics, and plastics are all frequently ground and
polished using this form of abrasive.
Grinding, lapping, and polishing wheels often employ loose abrasive grains
that are delivered in some type of oil- or water-based vehicle. Diamonds,
corundum, silicon carbide, and rouge (an iron oxide) are used in loose form
over a variety of grain size ranges.
 Advanced Ceramics
Pls refer book pages 509-512 and explore internet

Ceramics Mechanical Properties

The bulk of ceramic materials currently in use are brittle, hard

and noncorrosive
At room temperature, both crystalline and noncrystalline ceramics almost
always fracture before any plastic deformation can occur in response to an
applied tensile load.

Ceramics are generally compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements

and include such compounds as oxides, nitrides, and carbides. Typically they are
insulating (not electrical or thermally conductive) and resistant to high
temperatures and harsh environments (corrosion resistant). They usually have
lower electrical and thermal conductivity, higher stiffness, good resistance to
corrosive environments, and lower fracture toughness than metals. With the
exception of glasses, ceramics usually cannot be reshaped easily. To shape a
ceramic, a mixture of ceramic powders, water, and binder materials is molded into
the desired dimensions to form a temporary shape.
 Structure and Properties of
Ceramics
Most ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic
elements for which the interatomic bonds are either totally ionic, or
predominantly ionic but having some covalent character.
Lets talk about totally IONIC, crystal structures of these Ceramics
may be thought of as being composed of electrically charged ions
(Cations…Anions) instead of atoms.
Crystal structures in Ceramics is heavily influenced by:
# the magnitude of the electrical charge on each of the component
ions, and
# the relative sizes of the cations and anions
It is to note that metallic elements give up electrons when ionized and
become cations, hence cations are ordinarily smaller than anions.
Consequently the ratio of cation radius to anion radius is less than

unity r /r < 1
 Each cation prefers to have as many nearest-neighbor anions as possible.
The anions also desire a maximum number of cation nearest neighbors.
The coordination numbers and nearest-neighbor
Stable ceramic crystal structures geometries for various rC/rA ratios are presented in
form when those anions Table
surrounding a cation are all in
contact with that cation, as
illustrated in Figure

The coordination number (i.e., number

of anion nearest neighbors for a cation)
is related to the cation–anion radius
ratio.

For a specific coordination number,

there is a critical or minimum rC/rA
ratio for which this cation–anion
contact is established; this ratio may be
determined from pure geometrical
considerations.
 AX Type Crystal Structure

The structures where equal numbers of A-Cations and X-Anions exist

Rock Salt Structure Cesium Chloride Structure Zinc Blende Structure

Rock Salt Structure The coordination number for both cations and anions is 6, and
(Sodium Chloride NaCl) therefore the cation (Na) –anion (Cl) radius ratio is between
approximately 0.414 and 0.732. A unit cell for this crystal
structure (as shown in Figure ) is generated from an FCC
arrangement of anions with one cation situated at the cube
center and one at the center of each of the 12 cube edges.

An equivalent crystal structure results from a face-centered

arrangement of cations. Thus, the rock salt crystal structure may
be thought of as two interpenetrating FCC lattices, one
composed of the cations, the other of anions.

Some of the common ceramic materials that form with this

crystal structure are NaCl, MgO, MnS, LiF, and FeO.
AmXp Type Crystal Structure

If the charges on the cations and anions are not the same, a
compound can exist with the chemical formula AmXp, where m
and/or p = 1.
Examples: ZrO2 (cubic), UO2, PuO2, and ThO2, CaF2

AmBnXp Type Crystal Structure

It is also possible for ceramic compounds to have more than one
type of cation; for two types of cations (represented by A and B),
their chemical formula may be designated as AmBnXp.
Barium titanate (BaTiO3), having both Ba2+ and Ti4+ cations, falls
into this classification.
Fabrication and Processing of
Ceramics
 Glass Forming

Glass is produced by heating the raw materials to an elevated temperature

above which melting occurs. Most commercial glasses are of the silica–
soda–lime variety; the silica is usually supplied as common quartz sand,
whereas Na2O and CaO are added as soda ash (Na2CO3) and limestone
(CaCO3).

Five different forming methods are used to fabricate glass products:

pressing, blowing, drawing, and sheet and fiber forming

https://www.oberk.com/packaging-crash-co
Glass Blowing urse/glass-bottle-formation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dIKetIW
mzzs
Assignment
Pages 515-16 in Book
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A_M8W
BJMcM0

Glass Sheet Forming https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PSurxs

GQL90
Shaping of Clay Products

Methods:

1. Hydroplastic Forming Followed by Drying

and then
2. Slip Casting Firing

SLIP CASTING

A slip is a suspension of clay and/or other

nonplastic materials in water. When poured
into a porous mold (commonly made of
plaster of paris), water from the slip is
absorbed into the mold, leaving behind a
solid layer on the mold wall, the thickness
of which depends on the time. This process
may be continued until the entire mold
cavity becomes solid (solid casting), as
demonstrated in Figure.
Plaster of paris is used as mold material.
 Powder Pressing (Its A Ceramic analogue to Powder Metallurgy)
a powdered mass, usually containing a small amount of water or other binder, is
compacted into the desired shape by pressure.
It is used to fabricate both clay and nonclay compositions, including electronic and
magnetic ceramics as well as some refractory brick products.

There are three basic powder-pressing

procedures:
uniaxial, isostatic (or hydrostatic),
and hot pressing.
For uniaxial pressing, the powder is compacted
in a metal die by pressure that is applied in a
single direction. The formed piece takes on the
configuration of the die and platens through
which the pressure is applied. This method is
confined to shapes that are relatively simple;
however, production rates are high and the
process is inexpensive. The steps involved in
one technique are illustrated in Figure

A firing operation is required after the pressing operation. During firing, the formed piece shrinks and
experiences a reduction of porosity and an improvement in mechanical integrity. These changes occur
by the coalescence of the powder particles into a more dense mass in a process termed sintering.
 Polymers
Compound formed of repeating structural units called
mers*, whose atoms share electrons to form very
large molecules. Three categories:
1. Thermoplastic polymers - can be subjected to multiple
heating and cooling cycles without altering molecular
structure
2. Thermosetting polymers - molecules chemically transform
into a rigid structure – cannot reheat
3. Elastomers - shows significant elastic behavior
*originates from the Greek word ‘meros’ means “part”
Polymer was coined to mean “many mers”
Naturally occurring polymers—those derived from plants and animals
include wood, rubber, cotton, wool, leather, and silk.
Other natural polymers such as proteins, enzymes, starches, and
cellulose are important in biological and physiological processes in plants
and animals.
Many of our useful plastics, rubbers, and fiber materials are synthetic
polymers.
Polymers include the familiar plastic and
rubber materials.
Many of them are organic compounds that
are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen,
and other nonmetallic elements (i.e., O, N,
and Si).
Furthermore, they have very large
molecular structures, often chainlike in
nature, that often have a backbone of
carbon atoms.
Some of the
common and familiar polymers are
polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly(vinyl
chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate (PC),
polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber.
These materials typically
have low densities, whereas their
mechanical characteristics are generally
dissimilar to the metallic and ceramic
materials, they are not as stiff nor as strong
as these other material types.
In addition, many of the polymers are extremely ductile and pliable (i.e.,
plastic), which means they are easily formed into complex shapes.
In general, they are relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large
number of environments.
One major drawback to the polymers is their tendency to soften and/or
decompose at modest temperatures, which, in some instances, limits their
use.
Furthermore, they have low electrical conductivities and are nonmagnetic.
Because most polymers are organic in origin, we briefly review some of the basic
concepts relating to the structure of their molecules. First, many organic materials
are hydrocarbons; that is, they are composed of hydrogen and carbon. Furthermore,
the intramolecular bonds are covalent. Each carbon atom has four electrons that
may participate in covalent bonding, whereas every hydrogen atom has only one
bonding electron. A single covalent bond exists when each of the two bonding atoms
contributes one electron, as represented schematically in Figure for a molecule of
methane (CH4).
Pls refer P 534 of the Book

*Saturated and
Unsaturated hydrocarbons

*Isomerism
Chemistry of Polymer Molecules – Material Science Book Page 537
 Pls also refer Table 14.3 at P 539 in the Book

Molecular weight, shape and structure

Extremely large molecular weights are
observed in polymers with very long
chains. During the polymerization process,
not all polymer chains will grow to the
same length; this results in a distribution of
chain lengths or molecular weights.
 How backbone CARBON atoms (in grey
circle) influence the polymer chain shape

Thus, a single chain molecule composed of many chain atoms might assume a shape
similar to that represented schematically in Figure below
The physical characteristics of a polymer depend not only on its molecular
weight and shape but also on differences in the structure of the molecular
chains.

Different molecular structures in Polymers

(a) linear, (b) branched, (c) crosslinked, and (d) network (three-
dimensional) molecular structures.
*Circles designate individual repeat units
 Polymer Crystallinity

The crystalline state may exist in

polymeric materials. However, because it
involves molecules instead of just atoms
or ions, as with metals and ceramics, the
atomic arrangements will be more
complex for polymers.

We think of polymer crystallinity as the

packing of molecular chains to produce
an ordered atomic array.
Crystal structures
may be specified in terms of unit cells,
which are often quite complex. For
example, Figure below shows the unit
cell for polyethylene and its relationship
to the molecular chain structure; this unit
cell has orthorhombic geometry.
Of course, the chain molecules also
extend beyond the unit cell shown in the
figure.
 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers
The response of a polymer to mechanical forces at elevated temperatures is related to
its dominant molecular structure. In fact, one classification scheme for these materials
is according to behavior with rising temperature.
Thermoplastics (or thermoplastic polymers) and thermosets (or thermosetting
polymers) are the two subdivisions.
Thermoplastics soften when heated (and Thermosetting polymers are network polymers.
eventually liquefy) and harden when cooled— They become permanently hard during their
processes that are totally reversible and may be formation and do not soften upon heating. Network
repeated. polymers have covalent crosslinks between
On a molecular level, as the temperature is adjacent molecular chains. During heat treatments,
raised, secondary bonding forces are diminished these bonds anchor the chains together to resist
(by increased molecular motion) so that the the vibrational and rotational chain motions
relative movement of adjacent chains is at high temperatures. Thus, the materials do not
facilitated when a stress is applied. Irreversible soften when heated. Crosslinking is usually
degradation results when a molten thermoplastic extensive, in that 10 to 50% of the chain repeat
polymer is raised to too high a temperature. In units are crosslinked.
addition, thermoplastics are relatively soft. Most Only heating to excessive temperatures will cause
linear polymers and those having some severance of these crosslink bonds and polymer
branched structures with flexible chains are degradation.
thermoplastic. These materials are normally Thermoset polymers are generally harder and
fabricated by the simultaneous application of stronger than thermoplastics and have better
heat and pressure. dimensional stability.
Examples of common thermoplastic polymers Most of the crosslinked and network polymers, which
include include vulcanized rubbers, epoxies, and phenolics and
polyethylene, polystyrene, poly(ethylene some polyester resins, are thermosetting.
terephthalate), and poly(vinyl chloride).
 Polymer Types do it yourself
Plastics
Elastomers
Fibre
Advanced Polymers

(650 words with Figures) [Assignment]

Processing of Polymers
Polymerization
It is the process by which monomers are linked together to generate long
chains composed of repeat units.
Addition polymerization Condensation Polymerization

Addition polymerization (sometimes called Condensation (or step reaction)

chain reaction polymerization) is a process by
which monomer units are attached one at a
time in chainlike fashion to form a linear
macromolecule. The composition of the
resultant product molecule is an exact multiple
of that of the original reactant monomer.
polymerization is the formation of polymers by
stepwise intermolecular chemical reactions
that may involve more than one monomer
species. There is usually a small molecular
weight by-product such as water that is
eliminated (or condensed). No reactant
species has the chemical formula of the
repeat unit, and the intermolecular reaction
occurs every time a repeat unit is formed.
 Forming of Plastics

Forming of Plastics depends on:

(1) whether the material is thermoplastic or thermosetting;
(2) if thermoplastic, the temperature at which it softens;
(3) the atmospheric stability of the material being formed; and
(4) the geometry and size of the finished product.

Molding is the most common method for forming plastic polymers. The
several molding techniques used include compression, transfer, blow,
injection, and extrusion molding.

For each, a finely pelletized or granulized plastic is forced, at an elevated

temperature and by pressure, to flow into, fill, and assume the shape of a mold
cavity.
Injection Molding
Injection molding, the polymer
analogue of die casting for
metals, is the most widely
used technique for fabricating
thermoplastic materials. A
schematic cross section of the
apparatus used is illustrated in
Figure
Process Sequence-
The correct amount of pelletized material is fed from a feed hopper into a cylinder by
the motion of a plunger or ram.
This charge is pushed forward into a heating chamber where it is forced around a
spreader so as to make better contact with the heated wall. As a result, the
thermoplastic material melts to form a viscous liquid.
Next, the molten plastic is impelled, again by ram motion, through a nozzle into the
enclosed mold cavity; pressure is maintained until the molding has solidified.
Finally, the mold is opened, the piece is ejected, the mold is closed, and the entire
cycle is repeated.

The most outstanding feature of this technique are

speed with which pieces may be produced + cycle times for this process are short
(commonly within the range of 10 to 30 s).
Fabrication of Elastomers (Rubber Materials)
As same as for Plastics, but after Vulcanization
The crosslinking process in elastomers is called vulcanization, which is achieved
by a nonreversible chemical reaction, ordinarily carried out at an elevated
temperature.
In most vulcanizing reactions, sulfur compounds are added to the heated
elastomer; chains of sulfur atoms bond with adjacent polymer backbone chains and
crosslink them.
 Making of Polymer Films

Biaxial Drawing by Blowing and Extrusion

Film may be blown: continuous tubing is extruded through an annular die; then, by
maintaining a carefully controlled positive gas pressure inside the tube and by drawing the
film in the axial direction as it emerges from the die, the material expands around this
trapped air bubble like a balloon (Figure ). As a result, the wall thickness is continuously
reduced to produce a thin cylindrical film that can be sealed at the end to make garbage
bags, or may be cut and laid flat to make a film. This is termed a biaxial drawing process
and produces films that are strong in both stretching directions. Some of the newer films are
produced by coextrusion; that is, multilayers of more than one polymer type are extruded
simultaneously.
 Composites
A composite is composed of two (or more)
individual materials, which come from
the categories previously discussed—metals,
ceramics, and polymers. The design
goal of a composite is to achieve a
combination of properties that is not
displayed
by any single material, and also to
incorporate the best characteristics of each
of
the component materials.
Material consisting of two or more phases that
are processed separately and then bonded
together to achieve properties superior to its
constituents
• Phase - homogeneous mass of material,
such as grains of identical unit cell structure
in a solid metal
• Usual structure consists of particles or fibers
of one phase mixed in a second phase
• Properties depend on components, physical
shapes of components, and the way they
are combined to form the final material

A large number of composite types are made by different combinations of metals, ceramics, and
polymers.
Some naturally occurring materials are composites—for example, wood and bone.
Courtesy- http://www.bmw.com

The microstructure of a
composite is non-
uniform, discontinuous,
and multiphase, in the
sense that it is a
mixture of two or more
distinct materials.

Courtesy-https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=16648
 low densities; strong, stiff, abrasion and impact resistant; do not easily corrode

Many composite materials are composed of just two phases; one is termed the
matrix, which is continuous and surrounds the other phase, often called the
dispersed phase. The properties of composites are a function of the properties of the
constituent phases, their relative amounts, and the geometry of the dispersed phase.
Dispersed phase geometry in this context means the shape of the particles and the
particle size, distribution, and orientation; these characteristics are represented in
Figure

(a) concentration,
(b) size,
(c) shape,
(d) distribution, and
(e) orientation
 Classification of Composites

The dispersed phase for particle-reinforced composites is equiaxed (i.e.,

particle dimensions are approximately the same in all directions); for fiber-
reinforced composites, the dispersed phase is made of fibers having large
length-to-diameter ratio.
Structural composites are combinations of composites and homogeneous
materials.
Structural Composites
A structural composite is normally composed of both homogeneous and
composite materials, the properties of which depend not only on the properties of
the constituent materials but also on the geometrical design of the various
structural elements.
A laminar composite is composed of two- Sandwich panels, considered to be a class of
dimensional sheets or panels that have a structural composites, are designed to be lightweight
preferred high-strength direction, such as is beams or panels having relatively high stiffnesses
found in wood and continuous and aligned and strengths. A sandwich panel consists of two
fiber–reinforced plastics. The layers are outer sheets, or faces, that are separated by and
stacked and subsequently cemented adhesively bonded to a thicker core. The outer
together such that the orientation of the high- sheets are made of a relatively stiff and strong
strength direction varies with each material, typically aluminum alloys, fiber-reinforced
successive layer plastics, titanium, steel, or plywood; they impart high
stiffness and strength to the structure and must be
Laminar composites are thick enough to withstand tensile and compressive
plywood etc. stresses that result from loading.
The core material is lightweight and normally has a
Sandwich panels are low modulus of elasticity. Core materials typically fall
used in a wide variety of within three categories: rigid polymeric foams (i.e.,
applications including phenolics, epoxy, polyurethanes), wood, and
roofs, floors, and walls honeycombs.
of buildings and in
aerospace and aircraft
(i.e., for wings,
fuselage, and tailplane
skins).
Fibre Reinforced Composites
Technologically, the most important composites are those in which the dispersed
phase is in the form of a fiber. Design goals of fiber-reinforced composites
often include high strength and/or stiffness on a weight basis.
Fibre length, orientation and concentration

FRC Applications
Materials that are classified as fibers are either polycrystalline or amorphous
and have small diameters; fibrous materials are generally either polymers or
ceramics (e.g., the polymer aramids, glass, carbon, boron, aluminum oxide, and
silicon carbide).

The matrix phase of fibrous composites may be a metal, polymer, or ceramic.

In general, metals and polymers are used as matrix materials because some
ductility is desirable; for ceramic-matrix composites, the reinforcing
component is added to improve fracture toughness.

The matrix phase-

# acts as the medium by which an externally applied stress is transmitted

and distributed to the fibers,
# protects the individual fibers from surface damage as a result of
mechanical abrasion or chemical reactions with the environment,
# serves as a barrier to crack propagation: separates the fibers and, by
virtue of its relative softness and plasticity, prevents the propagation of brittle
cracks from fiber to fiber,
Polymer-matrix type Fibre-Reinforced Composites- *Self-Study
Metal-matrix type Fibre-Reinforced Composites
MMC
The matrix is a ductile metal. These materials may be used at higher service
temperatures than their base metal counterparts; furthermore, the
reinforcement may improve specific stiffness specific strength, abrasion
resistance, creep resistance, thermal conductivity, and dimensional stability.
Excellent high-temperature oxidation resistance and impact strength are also
maintained.
Some of the advantages of these materials over the polymermatrix
composites include higher operating temperatures, nonflammability, and
greater resistance to degradation by organic fluids.
Alloys of aluminum, magnesium, titanium, and copper, are employed as matrix materials.
The reinforcement may be in the form of particulates, both continuous and discontinuous
fibers, and whiskers; concentrations
normally range between 10 and 60 vol%.
Continuous-fiber materials include: carbon, silicon carbide, boron, aluminum oxide, and the
refractory metals.
Discontinuous reinforcements: silicon carbide whiskers, chopped fibers of aluminum oxide
and carbon, and particulates of silicon carbide and aluminum oxide.
The aerospace industry also uses MMCs. Structural applications include
advanced aluminum-alloy metal-matrix composites; boron fibers are used as
the reinforcement for the space shuttle orbiter, and continuous graphite fibers
for the Hubble Space Telescope.
Processing of Fibre Reinforced Composites
Pultrusion is used for the manufacture of components having continuous lengths
and a constant cross-sectional shape (rods, tubes, beams, etc.).
With this technique, illustrated schematically in Figure, continuous-fiber rovings, or tows,
are first impregnated with a thermosetting resin; these are then pulled through a steel
die that preforms to the desired shape and also establishes the resin/fiber ratio. The
stock then passes through a curing die that is precision machined so as to impart the
final shape; this die is also heated to initiate curing of the resin matrix. A pulling device
draws the stock through the dies and also determines the production speed.
Principal reinforcements are glass, carbon, and aramid fibers, normally added in
concentrations between 40 and 70 vol%. Commonly used matrix materials include
polyesters, vinyl esters, and epoxy resins.
 Particle-Reinforced Composites

Classification based on reinforcement or strengthening mechanism

Large-particle Dispersion-strengthened
composites

-Particle–matrix interactions cannot be -Particles are normally much smaller, with

treated on the atomic or molecular level; diameters between 0.01 and 0.1 m (10
rather, continuum mechanics. and 100 nm).

-Particle phase is harder and stiffer than -Matrix bears the major portion of an
matrix. applied load.

-Example-: -Example:
Concrete, which is composed Thoria-dispersed (or TD) nickel
of cement (the matrix) and sand and gravel Sintered Aluminium powder
(the particulates).