System

Earthing
Introduction
Terminology
In Britain, people have 'earth' and in Northern America
they have 'ground'. They are exactly the same thing,
only different terms are used in different countries.
The subject of earthing may be divided into two.
General Equipment earthing
System neutral earthing
The main objects of earthing are to:
- Reduce the voltage stresses due to switching, lightning,
faults, etc
- Control fault currents to satisfactory values
Introduction
General Equipment Earthing
It is the practice of earthing the metallic frames of
electrical equipment
Purpose - Improve safety to
- operational staff
- the general public
- property in general and
- system electrical equipment
Introduction
System Neutral Earthing
It is the practice of earthing the star-point or neutral of
the electrical power system

The method of earthing employed affects the system

behaviour, the levels of currents and voltages in the event
of a fault
In general, a low grounding impedance leads to higher
earth-fault currents but lower overvoltage
Introduction
What is Grounding?
Grounding: the intentional and permanent
connection between neutral and ground
Over 90% electrical faults are ground faults
Introduction

Contact between ground and an energized conductor

Unleashes large amount of electrical energy
Dangerous to equipment and people
Types of Power System Grounding
System Neutral grounding Arrangements
 Isolated or Ungrounded Neutral
 Solidly or Direct Earthing
 Impedance Earthing
 Arc-Suppression or Peterson-coil Earthing
Ungrounded Systems
Ungrounded Systems
• No intentional connection to ground.
• Used in industrial plants.
• Operational Benefit – Load continues
operating under a ground fault
• Economic Benefit – no neutral conductor
Ungrounded system
Ungrounded system
Each line conductor has a capacitance to the earth
and the magnitude of this capacitance is the same in a
perfectly transposed three phase line. With balanced
voltages applied to such a line, the capacitance
currents will be equal in magnitude as shown above.
Assume an earth fault in conductor A. Hence no
capacity current flows between the phase A and earth.
But the voltage across the other two phases rises to
phase to phase voltage
Ungrounded system

 Re-striking due to AC voltage waveform or loose wire caused by vibration

 OCPDs do not trip because ground fault current is low due to high value
of Rf.
Ungrounded system
 fault phase A supplied the currents ICGB and ICGC.
These being capacitive currents, no current flows
when the line capacitance is charged. Hence, an
arcing takes place at the faulted point. During this
period, the line capacitance discharges and capacitive
current once again flows.
This repetitive cycle of charging and discharging
causes intermittent arcing at the point of fault and
also gives rise to abnormal voltages across the healthy
phases due to the capacitance effect.
Ungrounded system
If this ground fault is intermittent or allowed to
continue, the system could be subjected to possible
severe over-voltages to ground, which can be as high
as six to eight times phase voltage. Such over-
voltages can puncture insulation and result in
additional ground faults. These over-voltages are
caused by repetitive charging of the system
capacitance or by resonance between the system
capacitance and the inductance of equipment in the
system. For these reasons, they are being used less
frequently today.
Solidly Grounded Systems
Intentional connection of neutral to ground.
 Solved system overvoltage problem of ungrounded
systems
Solidly Grounded Systems

Advantages Disadvantages
Fixed line to ground voltage  Unscheduled service interruption
 Strong shock hazard to personnel
Permit line-to-neutral loads
Solidly Grounded Systems
Solidly Grounded Systems
Advantages
It is simple and inexpensive in that it requires
no extra equipment. The expense of the earth-
current limiting device such as resistors, reactors,
etc, is eliminated.
The neutral point is held at earth potential
under all operating conditions. Consequently,
the voltage of any conductor to earth under
earth-fault conditions will NOT exceed the
normal phase voltage of the system.
Solidly Grounded Systems
The protection of the system is simplified by
virtue of the fact that the ground fault current
compares in magnitude with inter-phase fault
currents, making detection relatively easier
Hazard voltages are reduced to acceptable levels.
Power frequency, phase-earth overvoltages are
lowest, typically below 1.4 p.u., and this explains
why HV systems are solidly earthed.
Solidly Grounded Systems
Disadvantages
A solidly grounded system produces the greatest
magnitude of fault current when a ground fault
occurs
The increased ground fault current results in
greater influence (interference) on
neighbouring communication circuits.
The increased ground fault current produces
more conductor burning.
It is more pronounce at generation stations.
Impedance Grounded Systems
Impedance Grounded Systems
• Impedance inserted between neutral and
ground.
• Limits fault current, prevents arcing
ground faults.
• Still limits transient overvoltage.
Impedance Grounded Systems
Impedance Grounded Systems
By suitable choice of the ohmic value of the
impedance, the lagging component of the fault
current can be made equal to or more than
the capacity current, so that no transient
oscillation due to arcing grounds can occur.
However, if the ohmic value of the impedance
is sufficiently high so that the lagging current is
less than the capacity current , then the system
condition approaches that of the ungrounded
neutral system with the risk of transient
overvoltages occurring.
 High Impedance Grounded

Advantages Disadvantages
 Limits Ground Fault current to 10 Amps or less  Potential for nuisance alarming
 Allows faulted circuit to continue operation  Maintenance personnel may ignore first
fault
High Impedance Grounded
High- Impedance grounding helps ensure a ground-
fault current of known magnitude, helpful for relaying
purposes. This makes it possible to identify the
faulted feeder with sensitive ground-fault relays.
Low Resistance Grounded
Limit ground fault current to a high level (25-400A)
in order to operate protective fault clearing relays.
Limits damage to equipment
Prevents additional faults
Provides safety for personnel
Localizes the fault
Arc-Suppression Coil Earthing
(or Resonant Grounding)
Arc-suppression-coil, also called Peterson coil after the
inventor, is an attempt to eliminate the fault current that
could cause the arcing ground condition.
Arc-suppression coil earthing can be seen as special
reactance earthing, whose inductance can be adjusted to
closely match the network phase-earth capacitances,
depending on the system configurations.
Arc-Suppression Coil Earthing
(or Resonant Grounding)
The inductance of the arc-suppression-coil is adjusted such
that the inductive current due to the coil approximately
neutralizes capacitive current through the total network
capacitance 3C, at the fault.
The resultant earth-fault current is theoretically suppressed
and in any case inadequate to maintain the arc. Hence the
name “ arc suppression coil”.
Arc-Suppression Coil Earthing
(or Resonant Grounding)
 Voltage to earth of the faulty phase at the point of fault
becomes zero
 Voltage on the healthy phases is increased to 1.732 times
the normal value
 A resultant capacity current I-ag equal to three times
the normal line to neutral charging current flows
through the fault. This leads the voltage of the faulty
phase by 90 deg .
Neutral Grounding Device –Definition
Neutral Grounding Device – an impedance device
used to connect the neutral of an electrical system to
ground for the purpose of controlling ground current
and voltage-to-ground.
Earthing in a EHV Substation
1. Objective:
 The touch and step potential shall be within
limits under all conditions including fault
condition
 Grounding resistance shall be lower.
 Effective earthing system shall aim at providing
protection to life and property against dangerous
potentials under fault conditions
Earthing System
Points to be earthed in a substation
 The neutral point of each separate system should
have an independent earth, in turn interconnected
with the station grounding mat.
 Equipment frame work and other non-current parts
 All extraneous metallic frame works not associated
with equipment .
 Lightning arrestors should have independent
earths, in turn connected to the station grounding
grid.
Earthing System
Over head lightning screen shall also be connected to
main ground mat.
Operating handles of Isolators with a auxiliary earth mat
underneath, if necessary.
Peripheral fencing
Buildings inside the switch yard.
Transformer Neutrals shall be connected directly to
the earth electrode
Substation Earthing –Design of Earth mat
Design depends upon the following parameters
 Durational and magnitude of the fault current
 Resistivity of the surface layer of the soil
 Resistivity of the soil
 Magnitude of current that the human body can safely carry
 Permissible earth potential raise that may take place due
to the fault conditions
 Shock duration
 Material of Earth- mat conductor.
 Earth- mat geometry
 Transient overvoltage
 Lightning protection
 Application of protective devices for selective ground fault
protection
 Types of load served, such as motors, generators, etc.
EARTH MAT DESIGN
Substation Earthing –
Design of Earth mat
Parameters for the calculation of Maximum
permissible step and touch potential
Fault duration :- Fault clearing time of back up
protection is adopted
Modern protection systems provides for fast acting
back up protection
Considerable saving can be made by optimizing the size
of the conductor of earthing grid by considering lesser
fault duration.
These will change the earth potential raise due to
which Step and Touch potentials arise.
 Touch and Step Potentials

Touch Potential Step Potential

For a current of 0.009A and a body resistance of 1000
Ohms in less than 3 seconds,
E touch (tolerable) = (9 + 0.0135 ρs) volts
E step (tolerable) = (9 + 0.054 ρs) volts
Where ρ = soil resistivity.
Earth mat parameters
Let go current
Maximum safe current a person can tolerate and still
release grip of an energised object, using muscles
affected by the current
The magnitude of let go current adopted in
calculating maximum permissible step and touch
potentials (As per IEEE – 80 – 1976)
for man – 9 milli amps
for woman – 6milli amps
Earthing System
Permissible resistance of earthing system
Primary requirements : Impendence to ground (resistance of
earthing system)
Small substations – 2 Ohms
EHV substations up to 220 kV– 1 Ohm
Power stations and 400 kV substations – 0.5 Ohms
Distribution transformer - 5 Ohms.
In order to avoid abnormal shift of the neutral potential,
earth resistance of the station earthing system shall be
normally less than or equal to 1ohm.
Choice of System Earthing
Highly populated and industrial areas should have a
solidly earthed system as continuity of service is
regarded so important that multiple circuit lines and
two directional feeds are a must.
In less densely populated regions where loads are
small but distances are long, only single circuit lines
are justified. Such systems are good fields for the
application of arc suppression coils.
For thermal considerations, the size of conductor
depends upon:
a) Ground fault current.
b) Fault clearing time.
c) Material of the conductor
Material for the grounding conductor should have:
a) High conductivity
b) Low rate of corrosion by soil
c) Low rate of corrosion due to galvanic action.
Comparison of life expectancy of Ground
Rods
GROUNDING PLATES (ELECTRODES)
 Grounding plates are typically thin copper
plates buried in direct contact with the earth.
 The National Electric Code requires that

ground plates have at least 2 x 2 ft of

surface area exposed to the surrounding
soil.
 Grounding plates should be buried at least
30 inches below grade level.
 Non-ferrous materials (copper) need only be
0.06 inches thick.
 Grounding plates are typically placed under
poles.
Grounding Clamp Grounding Rod Bonding conductors
conductor
 Calculation of size of earth grid conductor

 Simplified formula for Steel Grid Conductor is given as:

Conductor area A = I x t
K

Where
A = area of earth conductor in mm2.
I = short circuit current in KA.
t = duration of short circuit current in seconds.
K factor = 80 for steel.
 Cont’d
 If mat is made of Flat then

 Give allowance of 35 % for corrosion

 If it is a conductor then
 Cont’d
 STANDARD FLATS

i) 10 x 6 iv) 40 x 6 vii) 60 x 6
Ii) 20 x 6 v) 50 x 6 viii) 65 x 10
Iii) 30 x 6 vi) 50 x 8 ix) 75 x 10

 ROD
40 mm Mild Steel Rod
Ensure connections are tight
Soil Resistivity
As soil resistivity differs with moisture content and, to a
slighter point, with temperature, ideally these
measurements should be made over a period of time
under different weather conditions. If, for some reason,
an actual measurement of resistivity is impractical,
gives approximate values of resistivity for different soil
types. The following values are only approximations and
should be replaced by measured data whenever
possible.
Type of ground Resistivity Ωm
Wet organic soil 10
Moist soil 102
Dry soil 103
Bedrock 104
 Measurement of Soil Resistivity

 The measurement of earth resistance is done using three

terminal or four terminal earth megger.
 Three Terminal: Two temporary electrodes or spikes are driven one
for current and the other for voltage at a distance of 150 feet and 75
feet from the earth electrode under test and ohmic values of earth
electrode is read in the megger.

 Four Terminal: Four spikes are driven into the ground at equal
intervals. The two outer spikes are connected to current terminals of
earth megger and the two inner spikes to potential terminals of the
megger till a steady value is obtained.
For 3 Terminal Meter (ii) For 4 Terminal Meter
Current Terminal – C or H Current Terminal C1, C2
Potential Terminal – P or U Potential Terminal P1, P2
Earth Terminal – E
4 TERMINAL EARTH TESTER
 Maintenance Schedule in at Substations:

S/N Item Periodicity

1. Watering of Earth Pits Daily

2. Measurement of earth resistance of individual earth pits Six months

3. Measurement of combined earth resistance at all the pits Six months

Checking of inter connections between earth pits and Quarterly

4.
tightness of bolts and nuts