fIHfII.7IO.

W All anlmals excepL Lhe slmplesL have some Lype of clrculaLory sysLem LhaL carrles essenLlal nuLrlenLs and oxygen Lo
every cell ln Lhe body
W CLn S?S1LM ln an open clrculaLory sysLem blood ls pumped from Lhe hearL lnLo a few ma[or arLerles buL Lhese very
qulckly glve way Lo large Llssue spaces or slnuses so LhaL Lhe Llssues and organs of Lhe body are dlrecLly baLhed ln
blood 8lood flows slowly from Lhe slnuses back Lo Lhe hearL 8oLh molluscs and arLhropods posses an open sysLem
W CLCSLu S?S1LM ln a closed sysLem blood ls pumped round Lhe body ln a branchlng neLwork arLerles and comes lnLo
conLacL wlLh Llssues and cells vla very Lhln walled vessels called caplllarles Lhan ln an SubsLances dlffuse lnLo and ouL
of Lhe blood Lhrough caplllary walls lrom caplllarles blood enLers Lhe velns and so reLurns Lo Lhe hearL 8lood flow
ln Lhe Lubes of Lhe closed sysLem ls much more brlsk and blood pressure Lend Lo be hlgher open sysLem ln annellds
Lhe closed sysLem ls falrly slmple wlLh a vessel above Lhe guL ln whlch blood moves forward connecLlng Lo one below
ln whlch blood moves backwards 1he blood ls pumped by perlsLalLlc conLracLlon of Lhe vessels and Lhls sysLem musL
be regarded as Lhe precursor of Lhe locallzed pump Slmple hearLs are ln facL seen ln some annellds such as
earLhworms and leeches
W verLebraLes all have a closed clrculaLory sysLem Mammals lncludlng human belngs and blrds have a hearL wlLh
Lwo separaLe pumps ln Lhese anlmals Lhe blood ln Lhe sysLemlc and pulmonary clrculaLlons almosL always remalns
separaLe ln amphlblans and mosL repLlles Lhe pumps of Lhe hearL are only parLly separaLe and Lhe sysLemlc and
pulmonary blood mlxes LogeLher somewhaL ln flsh Lhe hearL has only one pump 1he pump collecLs Lhe blood and
sends lL Lo Lhe gllls and Lhen Lo Lhe resL of Lhe flsh's body
LA81
W 1he hearL ls a muscular coneshaped organ
abouL Lhe slze of a clenched flsL of Lhe same
person
lL ls locaLed ln Lhe upper body (chesL area)
beLween Lhe lungs and wlLh lLs polnLed end
(called Lhe apex) downwards forwards and
polnLlng Lowards Lhe lefL
1he maln purpose of Lhe hearL ls Lo pump blood
around Lhe body
W 1he baslc sLrucLure of Lhe hearL (lllusLraLed
above) may be descrlbed as follows
W 1he earL ls dlvlded lnLo separaLe rlghL and lefL
secLlons by Lhe |nterventr|cu|ar septum or
sepLum when Lhe conLexL ls clearly LhaL of Lhe
hearL Lach of Lhese (rlghL and lefL) secLlons ls
also dlvlded lnLo upper and lower
comparLmenLs known as atr|a and ventr|c|es
respecLlvely
W 1he four maln chambers of Lhe hearL are
Lherefore Lhe
W |ght Atr|um
W |ght Ventr|c|e
W Left Atr|um
W Left Ventr|c|e
Jork of hearL
W eoxygenated b|ood (from Lhe body) ls pumped Lhrough Lhe
rlghL aLrlum and Lhe rlghL venLrlcle (Lo Lhe lungs) whlle
oxygenated b|ood (from Lhe lungs) ls pumped Lhrough Lhe
lefL aLrlum and Lhe lefL venLrlcle (Lo Lhe body)
W ueoxygenaLed blood enLers Lhe rlghL aLrlum from Lhe
uper|or vena cava and Lhe Infer|or vena cava
W ueoxygenaLed blood leaves Lhe rlghL venLrlcle by 9u|monary
artery whlch Lakes blood Lo Lhe lungs vla Lhe rlghL and lefL
branches of Lhe pulmonary arLery
W CxygenaLed blood enLers Lhe lefL aLrlum from Lhe 9u|monary
ve|ns 1hese may be labeled as rlghL pulmonary velns and
lefL pulmonary velns
W CxygenaLed blood leaves Lhe lefL venLrlcle by Ascend|ng
aorta whlch Lakes blood Lo Lhe body vla lLs sysLem of
arLerles arLerloles and caplllarles Ma[or arLerles leadlng
from Lhe hearL (vla Lhe ascendlng aorLa) lnclude Lhe
brach|ocepha||c artery Lhe |eft common carot|d artery and
Lhe |eft subc|av|an artery (lllusLraLed above) 1hese are [usL a
few of Lhe maln arLerles of Lhe body
W lL ls essenLlal LhaL blood flows ln Lhe correcL dlrecLlon Lhrough
Lhe hearL so Lhe sLrucLure of Lhe hearL lncludes a serles of
valves
W 1he @r|cusp|d va|ve separaLes Lhe rlghL aLrlum from Lhe rlghL
venLrlcle
W 1he 9u|mon|c ] 9u|monary va|ve separaLes Lhe rlghL venLrlcle
from Lhe pulmonary arLery
W 1he ,|tra| (a|so known as the 8|cusp|d) va|ve separaLes Lhe
lefL aLrlum from Lhe lefL venLrlcle
W 1he Aort|c va|ve separaLes Lhe rlghL venLrlcle from Lhe
ascendlng aorLa
8lood vessels
Artery
W Artery
W An artery (pl ottetles) ls one of several Lypes of blood
vessels LhaL LransporL blood around Lhe body
W 1he sLrucLure of an artery ls as follows
W 1he walls (ouLer sLrucLure) of arLerles conLaln smooLh
muscle flbre LhaL conLracL and relax under Lhe
lnsLrucLlons of Lhe sympaLheLlc nervous sysLem
W 1he funcLlons of arter|es lnclude
W 1ransporL blood away from Lhe hearL
W Carry CxygenaLed 8lood
(excepL ln Lhe case of Lhe ulmonary ArLery)
W ave relaLlvely narrow lumens (see dlagram above)
W ave relaLlvely more muscle/elasLlc Llssue
W 1ransporLs blood under hlgher pressure (Lhan velns)
W uo noL have valves (excepL for Lhe semllunar valves of
Lhe pulmonary arLery and Lhe aorLa)
Arter|o|e
W Arter|o|e
W An arter|o|e ls one of several Lypes of blood vessels LhaL
LransporL blood around Lhe body
W 1he sLrucLure of an arter|o|e ls
W ArLerloles are Llny branches of arLerles LhaL lead Lo caplllarles
1hese are also under Lhe conLrol of Lhe sympaLheLlc nervous
sysLem and consLrlcL and dlalaLe Lo regulaLe blood flow
W 1he funcLlons of arter|o|es lnclude
W 1ransporL blood from arLerles Lo caplllarles
W ArLerloles are Lhe maln regulaLors of blood flow and pressure
8LCCu vLSSLLS
W ap|||ary
W A cap|||ary ls one of several Lypes of blood vessel LhaL LransporL
blood around Lhe body
1he sLrucLure of a cap|||ary ls
W Caplllarles are Llny (exLremely narrow) blood vessels of
approxlmaLely 320 mlcromeLres (one mlcromeLre
0000001meLre) dlameLer
1here are neLworks of caplllarles ln mosL of Lhe organs and Llssues
of Lhe body 1hese caplllarles are supplled wlLh blood by arLerloles
and dralned by venules Caplllary walls are only one cell Lhlck (see
dlagram) whlch permlLs exchanges of maLerlal beLween Lhe
conLenLs of Lhe caplllary and Lhe surroundlng Llssue
1he funcLlons of cap|||ar|es lnclude
W luncLlon ls Lo supply Llssues wlLh componenLs of and carrled by
Lhe blood and also Lo remove wasLe from Lhe surroundlng cells
as opposed Lo slmply movlng Lhe blood around Lhe body (ln Lhe
case of oLher blood vessels)
W Lxchange of oxygen carbon dloxlde waLer salLs eLc beLween Lhe
blood and Lhe surroundlng body Llssues
W Venu|e
W A venu|e ls one of several Lypes of blood vessel LhaL LransporL blood
around Lhe body
W 1he sLrucLure of a venu|e ls
venules are mlnuLe vessels LhaL draln blood from caplllarles and
lnLo velns Many venules unlLe Lo form a veln
W 1he funcLlons of venu|es lnclude
uralns blood from caplllarles lnLo velns for reLurn Lo Lhe hearL
W Ve|n
W A ve|n ls one of several Lypes of blood vessels LhaL LransporL blood
around Lhe body
W 1he sLrucLure of a ve|n ls as follows
W 1he walls (ouLer sLrucLure) of velns conslsL of Lhree layers of Llssues
LhaL are Lhlnner and less elasLlc Lhan Lhe correspondlng layers of
aerLerles
velns lnclude valves LhaL ald Lhe reLurn of blood Lo Lhe hearL by
prevenLlng blood from flowlng ln Lhe reverse dlrecLlon
W 1he funcLlons of ve|ns lnclude
W 1ransporL blood Lowards Lhe hearL
W Carry ueoxygenaLed 8lood
(excepL ln Lhe case of Lhe ulmonary veln)
W ave relaLlvely wlde lumens (see dlagram above)
W ave relaLlvely less muscle/elasLlc Llssue
W 1ransporLs blood under lower pressure (Lhan arLerles)
W ave valves LhroughouL Lhe maln velns of Lhe body 1hese are Lo
prevenL blood flowlng ln Lhe wrong dlrecLlon as Lhls could (ln
Lheory) reLurn wasLe maLerlals Lo Lhe Llssues
W 9|asma
W AbouL 33 of whole blood ls blood plasma a fluld LhaL
ls Lhe bloods llquld medlum whlch by lLself ls sLraw
yellow ln color 1he blood plasma volume LoLals of 27
30 llLers (2832 quarLs) ln an average human lL ls
essenLlally an aqueous soluLlon conLalnlng 92 waLer
8 blood plasma proLelns and Lrace amounLs of oLher
maLerlals lasma clrculaLes dlssolved nuLrlenLs such as
glucose amlno acld and faLLy aclds (dlssolved ln Lhe
blood or bound Lo plasma proLelns) and removes wasLe
producLs such as carbon dloxlde urea and lacLlc acld
W CLher lmporLanL componenLs lnclude
W Serum albumln
W 8loodcloLLlng facLors (Lo faclllLaLe coagulaLlon)
W lmmunoglobulln (anLlbodles)
W llpoproLeln parLlcles
W varlous oLher proLelns
W varlous elecLrolyLes (malnly sodlum and chlorlde)
W 1he Lerm serumrefers Lo plasma from whlch Lhe cloLLlng
proLelns have been removed MosL of Lhe proLelns
remalnlng are albumln and lmmunoglobulln
ked b/ood ce//s
lL ls called eryLhrocyLes carry oxygen Lo body Llssues and
remove carbon dloxlde A red blood cells has a flaL dlsllke
shape lL ls Lhlnner ln Lhe mlddle of hemoglobln an oxygen
carrylng proLeln LhaL glves Lhem Lhelr red color 1he cells also
conLaln chemlcals parLlcularly enzymes Lnzymes enable Lhe
cells Lo carry ouL necessary chemlcal processes more
effecLlvely A flexlble membrane surrounds each red blood
cell 1he membrane ls so flexlble Lhe cells can squeeze
Lhrough Lhe LlnlesL blood vessels MosL klnds of cells have a
nucleus a cenLral sLrucLure LhaL conLrols many cell acLlvlLles
8uL maLure red blood cells have no nuclel
white 8/ood ce//s
lL ls called leucocyLes flghL lnfecLlons and harmful subsLances
LhaL lnvade Lhe body MosL of Lhe cells are round and
colorless 1hey have several slzes and Lhelr nuclel dlffer ln
shape Some klnds of whlLe cells klll bacLerla by surroundlng
and dlgesLlng Lhem CLher klnds produce anLlbodles proLelns
LhaL desLroy bacLerla vlruses and oLher lnvaders or make
Lhem harmless
P/ote/ets
lL ls known as LhrombocyLes are dlsc llke sLrucLure LhaL help
sLop bleedlng 1hey are Lhe smallesL formed elemenLs lf a
blood vessel ls cuL plaLeleLs sLlck Lo Lhe edges of Lhe cuL and
Lo one anoLher formlng a gen and cerLaln oLher plasma
proLelns leadlng Lo Lhe formaLlon of blood cloL
W 1he membrane of red blood cells conLaln proLelns called
anLlgens More Lhan 300 redcell anLlgens have been
ldenLlfled 8ased on Lhe presence or absence of parLlcular
anLlgens sclenLlsLs have classlfled human blood lnLo varlous
groups