Computer Aided Manufacturing

Computer Numerical Control - Introduction

• The need for flexible automation where you get the benefits of rigid automation but also be able to vary the products manufactured thus
bringing in the flexibility, Numerical control fits the requirement perfectly.
• Numerical Control (NC), or control by numbers, the key factor responsible for the popularity of numerical control is the flexibility it offers
in manufacturing.
• These systems evolved, due to rapid advancement of micro-electronics, from electronic valves to IC’s, making 90% reduction in
components, and 80% reduction in wiring.
• First from VMC, all the motion elements were removed, and replaced by speed hydraulic transmissions, and connected to 3 lead screws of
the table. Hence forth, these systems were able to control machines with 3,4&5-axes; also had features like circular and parabolic
interpolation, cutter compensation and dial input.
• These systems were much more reliable; rapid advancements have taken place in NC technology parallel with the developments in
electronics and microelectronics.
 Numerical Control
• Numerical control of machine tools may be defined as a method of automation in which various functions of machine tools are controlled
by letters, numbers and symbols.
• An NC machine runs on a program fed to it, which consists of precise instructions about the methodology of manufacture as well as the
movements,
For Ex: what tool to be used, at what speed, at what feed and to move from which point to which point in what path.
• The program is the controlling point for product manufacture, the machine becomes versatile and can be used for any part. All the
functions of an NC machine tool are therefore controlled electronically, hydraulically or pneumatically.
• In NC machine tools, one or more of the following functions may be automatic:
(a) starting and stopping of machine-tool spindle
(b) controlling the spindle speed
(c) positioning the tool tip at desired locations and guiding it along desired paths by automatic control of the motion of slides
(d) controlling the feed rate
(e) changing of tools in the spindle Working in an open-loop control,
where the checking for the actual
• The basic information that has to be input into the system consists position reached is not carried out.
of the part geometry, cutting-process parameters followed by the
cutting tools used.
• This part program is then entered into the controller of the
machine, which in turn runs the machine tool to make the part.
• Each of the machine axes is connected to a servomotor which
works under the control of the Machine Control Unit (MCU).
• The movement of the cutting tool with respect to the workpiece is
given in terms of the coordinates, which are used to control the
motion of the servomotor which drives the individual axes.
 Numerical Control (Contd.,)
Operation of a typical NC system is shown.
• The part program consists of instructions written in the numerical codes that
constitute the basic operations to be carried out in machining of the part.
• These instructions are then entered into an input medium such as a standard 1-
inch paper tape. The program is then read by the paper-tape reader.
• The controller translates these numerical codes into the machine actuation
details, which are then used to control the individual machine functions such as
the movement of the axes.

• Most of the NC machine tools are controlled with a feedback control system
wherein the feedback information is provided to the machine control unit to
ensure that the programmed instructions are accurately carried out. The feedback
provided consists of the positional as well as velocity data.
• The feedback for the actual motion achieved is obtained generally with the help
of an encoder. The axis-motion control system operates in a feedback loop with
suitable transducers such as linear scales and/or rotary encoders to get the
appropriate position or velocity feedback.

The data processing in a CNC machine

tool in closed-loop control
 Numerical Control - Modes
• Controllers have a number of modes to operate. There could be 4
possible modes in which the controller can function in relation to a
machining center.
• A typical drilling machine operation, termed point-to-point mode.
Here, the control has the capability to operate all the 3 axes, but not
necessarily simultaneously. As a result, it would be possible to move
the tool to any point (in X and Y-axes) in the fastest possible speed and
carry out the machining operation in third axis (Z-axis) at that point.
This is useful for drilling and punching machines.

• The second type is an improvement over this in which in addition to

the point-to-point mode, the machine tool has the capability to carry
out a continuous motion in each of the axis direction. This helps in
obtaining the milling in a straight line along any of the axes.

• In the third type is shown a control system, which improves the

previous type by adding the simultaneous motion capability in any 2
axes. This is what is required in most of the cases. Any 3D profiles to be
machined can be completed using the concept of 2.5D mode, in view
of the limitation of the machine.

• The last one is the highest form of control that is generally found in
most of the current-day control systems. This gives the capability of
simultaneous 3 or more axes motion. Useful for machining most of the
complex 3D profiles (aerospace components, mould's and dies).
 Numerical Control - Elements
Machine Control Unit:
• Every NC machine tool is fitted with a Machine Control Unit (MCU) which performs the various controlling functions under the program
control.
• The MCU may be generally housed in a separate cabinet-like body or may be mounted on the machine itself. When separately mounted, it
may sometimes be like a pendant which could swing around for convenient handling by the operator.
• Appearance-wise it looks like a computer with a display panel and a number of buttons to control the machine tool along with a keyboard.
• This control unit controls the motion of the cutting tool, spindle speeds, feed rate, tool changes, cutting-fluid application and several other
functions of the machine tool.

Part Program:
• Part program is a very important software element in the NC manufacturing system. It is a detailed plan of manufacturing instructions
required for machining the part as per the drawing. It is a program containing a number of lines/statements/instructions (called NC blocks)
following a specified format.
• The format is standardized by ISO which is followed by many a controller manufacturers with minor variations. Some typical NC blocks
written format as per ISO are:

• The program can also be written in higher-level languages such as APT, UNIAPT, COMPACT II, etc. These programs have to be converted
into the earlier mentioned machine-tool-level program with the help of processors and post-processors.
• This is termed as computer-aided part programming.
• The programs can also be developed directly using CAD/CAM systems such as Unigraphics or CAM systems such as Master-CAM, Smart-
CAM, etc., These also require a post-processor like the earlier discussed computer-aided part-programming systems.
 Numerical Control – Elements (Contd.,)
Program-Coding Systems:
• The human readable characters as seen in the part program can’t be directly entered into the machine control unit. They need to be
converted into some form of code and entered.
• The numbering system that we use for normal algebra function utilizes a base-10 decimal system. However, computers utilize a binary
system, which is of base 2. A binary system has only two states, 0 and 1.
• It is a very straightforward manipulation to convert one system of numbering system to the other.
For example, the number 365 in base 10 format can be represented as 365 = 3 × + 6 × + 5 × (Base-10) = 101101101(Base-2).
• A pure binary system is of course rarely used for NC input.
• Instead a more sophisticated BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) system is usually employed. It is an encoding for decimal numbers in which each
digit is represented by its own binary sequence.
• To encode decimal number in BCD format we may use the common encoding, where each decimal digit is stored in a four-bit nibble.
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 BCD 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 The number 365 in BCD format is 365 = 0011 0110
0101.
• Its main advantage is the easy conversion to decimal digits, and thus it allows for faster decimal calculations.

Part-Program Input:
• Part program after preparing, needs to be entered into the machine-tool control unit for the purpose of execution. For this purpose a
variety of methods are used: • Paper tape (now obsolete) • Manual Data Input (MDI) • Direct Numerical Control (DNC)
• In Manual Data Input, the machine control unit provides a keyboard to directly enter the program into the main memory of the MCU.
Since most of the present-day MCUs have large memory, it is possible to store a number of programs in the memory as well as edit them
as required. Also, most of the modern-day MCUs are provided with a USB port or Ethernet port as part of the communication facility. The
part programs can be entered in ASCII mode using any simple text editor in a personal computer and then transferred to MCU through the
USB port or over the LAN connection.
• Direct Numerical Control or DNC refers to a system where a Personal Computer (PC) is connected to the MCU through a serial port (RS
232C).
 Numerical Control – Elements (Contd.,)
NC Tooling:
• The operator gets the relevant tooling for the part to be machined.
• A distinctive deviation of the NC tooling from the conventional one is that each cutting tool is set in a different adapter.
• The configuration suggested by ISO is now generally followed. A power-operated drawbar may be employed to pull the tooling at the
retention knob. This helps eliminate any clearance between the mating surfaces of the spindle and tooling shank.
• 20 to 30% of total budget for tooling during the buying of new NC machine tools.

• A preset tool has adjustable locating faces. It enables the dimensions between the tool-cutting edges and location faces to be adjusted
precisely to a close tolerance using a presetting device.
• The preset tool usually needs to be removed from the machine for adjustments required during production. The tools may be stored on a
drum, which is part of the machine itself. In the system, the tools are automatically replaced or changed in the spindle. The system also
keeps track of the tool tip's deviation from the programmer's specifications. This information is important because the tool tip's position
can change over time due to wear and tear, resharpen in the tool files or replacement.
• The programmer gets the information from that are updated periodically. In spite of the ‘updating’, the position of the tool tip when
supplied to the operator may be different (from what is mentioned in the tool file) because of wear and tear, resharpening or setting of a
new cutting tool due to breakage. A system that helps to ensure accurate and consistent machining by using preset tools and tracking tool
wear.
 NC - Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages:
• NC machines produce parts faster and potentially cheaper by minimizing idle time through efficient programming.
• They ensure higher precision and consistent quality for smaller batches due to automation and reduced human error.
• Minimal operator involvement leads to less scrap due to human error.
• Expensive jigs and fixtures are minimized or eliminated as part programs handle geometry generation.
• Inspection time reduces as all parts in a batch are identical with proper tool management.
• NC machines eliminate specific form tools as complex 3D profiles can be programmed.
• Lead times are significantly reduced thanks to minimized fixture and setup needs.
• CNC machining centers perform multiple operations, reducing machine count, floor space, and lead time.
• Setup times and number of setups are reduced, leading to lower processing times. Complex parts can be completed in single machines.
• Machining times and costs are more predictable due to thorough analysis before programming.
• Operator fatigue is eliminated, and machines can be used continuously thanks to their rigidity.
• Optimal tool feeds and speeds can be programmed for each job.
• Design modifications are easily implemented by changing part programs, offering high flexibility.
• NC machines have high metal removal capability due to their rigid construction.

Disadvantages:
• NC machines are expensive to purchase and operate due to high initial cost, tooling cost, and hourly rate.
• NC machines require skilled personnel to operate and maintain, such as part programmers, tool setters, and maintenance staff.
• Training is essential for NC personnel to learn about both the software and hardware aspects of NC machines.
• Maintenance of NC machines is expensive due to the need for skilled personnel and spare parts.
• NC machines have higher running costs due to automatic operation and the need for a conditioned environment.
 Computer Numerical Control – Machine Tools
CNC Machine Tools: A Basic Outline
Concept: CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machine tools are automated machines controlled by computer programs. These programs
dictate the movement of cutting tools, resulting in precise and complex manufacturing operations.
Data Involved:
•CAD/CAM data: 3D models of the desired part are created in CAD software and converted into toolpaths using CAM software. These
toolpaths include coordinates, speeds, feeds, depths and tool changes.
•Machine control data: G-code and M-code instructions are used to program the machine's movements, spindle speed, feed rate, coolant
systems, and other functions.
•Tooling data: Information about the type, size, and geometry of cutting tools used, along with their wear and tear data, is crucial for ensuring
accuracy and efficiency.
•Sensor data: Sensors within the machine track parameters like vibration, temperature, and tool force, providing feedback for process
optimization and safety.
•Material data: Properties of the workpiece material, such as hardness, ductility, and thermal conductivity, influence tool selection and
cutting parameters.
 Computer Numerical Control – Machine Tools
Machine Tool Structure Design
Main objectives:
•High static stiffness:
• Minimizes deflection under cutting
forces and workpiece weight.
• Enables optimal operation across
various machining conditions.
•High stiffness-to-weight ratio:
• Crucial for good dynamic response,
especially in high-speed machines
(50-60 m/min).
Common materials and approaches:
•Cast iron with heavy ribbing:
• Offers high stiffness, low weight, and
good material damping.
• Optimized with finite element
analysis.
• Heavy design with strategic ribs for
improved stiffness.
•Welded steel structure (less common):
• Lower weight-to-stiffness ratio.
• Limited vibration damping, makes it
less preferred for CNC machines.
•Concrete bed (gaining popularity):
• Low cost and excellent damping
capacity.
• Slideways secured with studs and
resin seating.
Innovations:
•Damping and non-slip mounting pads:
• Eliminate need for separate
foundation in heavier machines.
Spindle Design in Machine Tools
•Importance: The spindle is a critical component of a machine tool, responsible for providing both the necessary motion and
power for machining. Its accuracy is crucial for achieving high-quality results.
•Design Considerations:
• Minimize deflection: Due to the large cutting forces experienced in CNC machines, minimizing spindle deflection is
essential for maintaining surface finish and reducing chatter.
• Support: The spindle should be well-supported with minimal overhang beyond the bearings, and use sufficiently
large bearings to handle the axial and radial loads.
• Cooling: Significant heat is generated due to the high power and speeds involved. Proper cooling methods, such as
oil circulation with a heat exchanger or chilling arrangement, are necessary to maintain thermal stability and
minimize spindle growth.
• Isolation: Isolating the spindle motor and gearbox from the main structure helps prevent heat transfer and maintain
accuracy.
• Temperature compensation: Advanced systems like Bridgeport's use temperature sensors to continuously monitor
and compensate for thermal variations, enabling faster cutting speeds.
•Spindle Arrangements:
• Turning centers and horizontal machining centers: The arrangements discussed previously are well-suited for these
machines.
• Vertical machining centers: In these machines, the spindle typically moves for Z-axis movement, which can cause
deflection under heavy loads. To address this, the entire spindle assembly may move instead of just the spindle itself.
• C-frame design: This design helps reduce overhang in vertical machining centers by positioning the spindle head
further away from the column.
• Bifurcated structure: Used in some horizontal machining centers to improve torsional rigidity by using a two-pillar
structure for the Y-axis column and separate slideways for the spindle housing.
 Computer Numerical Control – Machine Tools
Drives in CNC Machines: • Eliminate brush wear, reducing maintenance needs.
• In CNC machines, drives act as the crucial link between the control system and the • Offer a good balance between performance and cost.
physical movement of the machine. • Permanent magnet rotor reduces inertia and heat dissipation, wider speed
• They translate digital commands from the CNC controller into precise and controlled range than DC motors, require encoder feedback for closed-loop control.
motion of various elements like the spindle and feed axes. •AC Servomotors:
• Choosing the right drives is crucial for achieving desired speed, accuracy, and overall • Robust and reliable option for high-speed applications and harsh
performance of the machine. environments.
• Main Types of Drives: • Offer good torque and power handling capabilities.
1. Spindle Drives: • May be less responsive than DC options.
•Traditional DC Motors: • Wider speed range than DC motors, require complex encoder-based control
• Offer infinite speed control but limited by brush wear and maintenance systems
needs. •Stepper Motors:
• Require brush replacement and regular cleaning. • Low-cost and simple option for low-speed, open-loop systems.
• Used in older machines or for lower-demand applications. • Move in fixed angular steps, good for positioning tasks.
•AC Motors with Frequency Converters: • Limited accuracy and speed compared to servo motors.
• Current trend due to higher reliability, lower maintenance, and wider speed • Easy to drive, high holding torque at low speeds, limited dynamic
range. performance, susceptible to resonance.
• Utilize variable frequency drives to control motor speed. • Micro-stepping overs higher resolution.
• Can also be used for C-axis positioning in turn-mill centers. • Open loop Control possible, but encoders can enhance accuracy.
2. Feed Drives: • Permanent Magnet Steppers: Use permanent magnets for higher torque and
•DC Servomotors: efficiency.
• High-performance option for demanding applications with quick starts/stops • Variable Reluctance Steppers: Lower cost, simpler design, lower torque than
and accurate positioning. PM steppers.
• Offer fast response due to lightweight, low-inertia armatures. •Linear Motors:
• Require more complex control systems and can be expensive. • Emerging technology offering high accuracy, tighter tolerances, speed, and no
• Low armature inductance for quick response, high torque density, require wear due to contactless operation. (Reduced Non Machining Time)
feedback control for closed-loop operation • Provide unlimited travel distance compared to ball screws.
•Brushless DC Servomotors: • High acceleration and deceleration compared for faster positioning.
• Similar to DC servos but with permanent magnet rotors, increasing efficiency • Expensive and require higher complexity in control systems.
and reliability. • High force density, high bandwidth, zero cogging, require specialized linear
encoders for closed-loop control.
 Feedback Mechanism
• The CNC machine tools use closed-loop control system with an appropriate feedback to provide accurate control to the movement of the
axes.

• It requires an appropriate feedback device to provide the necessary input to the control system. The command position comes from the
MCU as the actual amount programmed. This is compared in the comparator with the current position of the slide and provides the actual
pulses required to move the motor.
• These pulses are converted to the analog signal by a DAC and fed through an amplifier to run the motor. The actual signal to the motor will
be further compared by the velocity feedback obtained through the tacho generator.
• A large variety of sensors have been used in CNC machine tools with varying success for providing the necessary measurement of the
displacement (current position of the axis). Encoders and Linear Scales are the sensors that have become more common in the present
day CNC machine tools.
• The transducer that is connected directly to the rotor or the lead screw is the simplest arrangement requiring no additional gearing (many
a servomotors come with integral rotary encoders). However the backlash present in the lead screw nut arrangement as well as any pitch
errors of the lead screw may need to be eliminated or compensated by other means.
 Feedback Devices
Optical Rotary Encoder:
• An optical rotary encoder converts the rotary motion into a sequence of digital pulses. The pulses are counted to convert to either
absolute or incremental position measurement. The encoders generally come in two forms, absolute encoder and incremental encoder.
• The absolute encoder provides the exact rotational position of the shaft whereas the incremental encoder gives the relative position of the
shaft in terms of digital pulses.
• The optical encoder consists of a disc with a number of accurately etched equidistant lines or slots along the periphery. The encoder disc is
attached to the shaft of the machine whose rotary position needs to be measured.
• The disc is placed between a light source (IR LED) and a photo diode. When the disc rotates the lines are interrupted and the light
measuring device counts the number of times the light is interrupted. By a careful counting and necessary calculations it is possible to
know the position traversed by the shaft.
Absolute Encoder:
• The encoder disc is etched with distinct positions, so that the associated sensor can know the exact
position of the shaft.
• Errors of wrong interpretation may occur, when binary code(possibility of more than one bit
changing) is used, To avoid that, grey code is designed in such a way that only one track changes
state for each count transition.
 Feedback Devices(Contd.,)
Incremental Encoder:
• The encoder disk of an incremental encoder consists of one track and two sensors as shown in X,
whose outputs are called channel A and channel B.
• As the shaft rotates, pulse trains occur on these channels at a frequency proportional to the
rotational speed. The phase difference between these two signals yields the direction of rotation.
With this arrangement, as shown in Y, the output gets multiplied by four times to yield a higher
resolution. Incremental encoder provides more resolution at lower cost compared to the absolute
encoder.
• However, it can only measure relative position, hence it has to be used in conjunction with another
home position defined by a limit switch.
• The encoder is directly mounted on the servomotor shaft or at the end of the lead screw. With such an arrangement the actual distance
moved by the machine tool table needs to be calculated from the rotary motion by using the lead of the lead screw.
• If there is any backlash in the lead screw or there is a difference in the lead at various positions of the lead screw, then the actual distance
moved by the table will be different from that calculated by the conversion of the position indicated by the encoder.
 Feedback Devices(Contd.,)
Linear Scale:
• The linear scale provides the exact position reached by the slide, it is better to measure the absolute position directly rather than in an
indirect way using an encoder.
• In the linear scale, there is a finely graduated scale ( grating) made of either glass or stainless steel, which provides a measuring surface
along with a scanning unit. One of them is fixed to a stationary part of the machine tool while the other is fixed to the moving part.
• The scanning unit consists of a light source (IR LED), a glass grid with graduated windows and some photo diodes as receptors.
• For linear measurement in a linear scale, optical gratings are used, When two gratings overlap each other, then depending upon the
displacement, a Moirè fringe pattern is formed. It is possible to calculate the actual distance moved by the fringe pattern which depends
on the grating spacing, the angle of the grating and the distance moved.
 Coordinate Systems
• The major component of a NC program involves the input of coordinates of the tool end point. To
produce any machining profile, it is necessary to follow a proper coordinate system.
• All the machine tools make use of the Cartesian coordinate system for the sake of simplicity. The
guiding coordinate system followed for designating the axes is the familiar right hand coordinate
system. The main axes to be designated are the rectangular axes and the rotary axes.
• The first axis to be identified is the Z axis. This is then followed by the X and Y axes respectively.
Z Axis:
• The Z axis motion is either along the spindle axis or parallel to the spindle axis.(perpendicular to work-
holding surface, controlled by spindle or tool tip.)
• The tool moving away from the work-holding surface towards the cutting tool is designated as the + Z
direction. (clearing tool). in a drilling machine the drill moving into the workpiece is the - Z direction.
• When there are Several Spindles, the one perpendicular to the work-holding surface is the principal
spindle, that defines Z axis.
• The motions of other spindle quills or other slides, which are termed as secondary and tertiary motions
(U, V, W, X, Y, Z)

X Axis:
• Principal motion direction in cutting tool/workpiece positioning plane.
• Perpendicular to Z-axis, horizontal, and parallel to work surface.
• When looking from the principal spindle to the column, the +X is to the right.
• Radial and parallel to cross slide in turning machines.
• Positive X moves tool away from workpiece rotation axis in other machines.
• For other machine tools, the X axis is parallel to and positive along the principle direction of movement
of the cutting or the guided point.
 Coordinate Systems(Contd.,)
Y Axis:
• It is perpendicular to both X and Z.
• A, B and C define the primary rotary motions about the three axes
respectively. If, there exist secondary rotary motions, those should be
designated as D or E regardless of whether they are parallel or not to
A, B and C.
• Positive A, B and C are in the directions which advance right-hand
screws in the positive X, Y, and Z directions respectively; the fingers of
the right-hand point towards the positive direction of the rotary
motions.

• In the four-axes version, a complimentary motion parallel to the

spindle movement (Z axis) is designated as W axis.
• A five-axes machining center with a horizontal spindle.
In addition to the normal three-axes (X, Y and Z), two rotary axes A
and B are added. In one case, the spindle originally horizontal is
swiveling about the X axis. A rotary table is added on the table to
give a rotary motion about the Y axis.
 NC & CNC Comparison NC (Numerical Control):
•Pros:
Feature CNC NC
• Less expensive machine and maintenance
Control System Computer-based Punched tape or cards cost.
G-codes and M-codes (language), flexible Point to point (manual); Limited • Simple and easier to understand the
and complex; Programs can be modified instructions, less flexible; Program Editing mechanics.
Programming easily. Storage of Programs is possible. and Storage has limitations • No need for computer programming
Limited toSimpler parts with basic knowledge for operators.
Part complexity Highly complex parts with intricate features shapes •Cons:
• Limited flexibility and functionality.
Repeatability Extremely high, consistent parts Good, slight variations possible
• Lower accuracy and production speed.
Accuracy and Moderate, prone to operator error and • Programs rely on punch cards or
Precision Very high, precise dimensions wear tapes, leading to difficulties in editing and
Production Faster, Automated due to efficient toolpath storage.
Speed optimization Slower due to manual intervention • Requires highly skilled operators.
Operator skill Requires specialized training for Requires basic machining skills and tape CNC (Computer Numerical Control):
level programming and operation reading •Pros:
• Highly flexible and capable of complex
Higher due to complex electronics and functions.
Cost computer software Lower due to simpler technology • Superior accuracy and faster production
Adaptable to various materials and speed.
Flexibility machining processes, hence more flexibility Limited to specific tasks and materials • Easier program editing, storage, and
Requires maintenance of mechanical sharing.
Requires regular maintenance of electronics components(comparatively less • Less reliance on skilled operators due to
Maintenance and software updates (more maintenance) maintenance) user-friendly interfaces.
Setup Time Longer Shorter •Cons:
• More expensive machine and maintenance
More powerful, versatile, and efficient for Less sophisticated, suitable for basic cost.
Overall advanced manufacturing production needs • Requires some computer programming
Widely used in diverse industries for Primarily used in specific industries for knowledge for operators and maintenance.
Applications complex parts simpler components • Can be more complex to troubleshoot.
 Group Technology
• Group Technology (GT) is the most important technological improvement reported for the batch-processing industries.
• The GT approach is based on the principle of sameness which refers to the grouping of parts to be manufactured according to similarities
derived using various characteristics and processing them on their requisite machines placed close together in a cell. The concept of
Cellular Manufacturing System (CMS) has been reported to have resulted in the largest manufacturing productivity increases.
• Group Technology (GT) is a manufacturing philosophy which can be used to group parts based on similarities in design or manufacturing
process so as to reduce the overall manufacturing cost. By grouping the parts, small batches of different parts can be produced as a large
batch, thereby bringing in the advantages of mass manufacture to batch manufacturing.
• There are two types of plant layout’s followed.: 1. Process Layout and 2. Plant Layout
 Plant Layouts
• For small batch and job-shop manufacture, generally process layout is followed. Here, all the machine tools of the same process are
grouped in a single department and placed together. However, with such an arrangement it can be noticed that the parts need to move
through various departments to complete the task.
• This calls for a fairly large amount of travel for the part and is wasteful.

Layout of machines with Layout of machines with

process grouping in a functional grouping as per
conventional job shop product requirements
(plant layout) (product layout)

• In case of product layout, the machines are arranged in the sequence in which the operations are to be carried out, such that the part
movement is smooth. The parts don’t have to travel a lot in the shop since the next machine tool is always placed by the side.
• However, this type of layout can be justified only when there are enough number of parts to be done on these groups of machine tools so
that they are occupied all the time. When the production is of small or medium batch, it is difficult to fully load the machine tools and that
makes the machine tools used in that particular line to be under-utilized.
• However, by grouping the parts together into a family, it is possible to make the batch sizes large by combining the production
requirement of the individual parts together.
 Advantages and Limitations of Group Technology
ADVANTAGES:
• Group technology allows similar designs to be easily modified from the existing designs from the database instead of starting from scratch.
• Standard process plans can be developed for the groups. Greater efforts can be applied in optimizing the process plans.
• Standard tooling can be developed for a part family, and then a standard a set-up procedure can be used.
• The use of GT allows faster production, therefore there is less inventory, and Work in Process (WIP).
• The throughput time gets reduced. Material handling and movement is reduced.
• Improvement in quality and reduction in scrap results in increase in production.
• There is improved utilization of machines, and as a result lesser number of machines are required. This increases the floor space available.
There is increase in output per employee and hence increase in productivity.
• Manufacturing lead time (MLT) is reduced leading to reduction in overdue orders. There is improved ability to respond to market changes.
Increase in job satisfaction and greater management–worker harmony results.

LIMITATIONS:
• The cost of implementation is generally high with an outside consultant often being necessary since in-house expertise on GT is rarely
available. It requires a long set-up time and painful debugging.
• It may not be suitable for a factory with a very large variety of products.
• The entire production of the company cannot be put under GT and hence GT will have to coexist with conventional layouts.
• There are too many GT codes in use and there is no one GT code that suits all applications.
• It is often difficult to conceive all the operations for a group of components being taken care of in the cell created for it.
• The range of product mix in a plant may be under constant change in which case, the GT cells may need constant revision, which is
impractical.
 Part Family Formation
Visual Inspection:
• Least sophisticated and least expensive method.
• The classification of parts into families is done by visually inspecting either the physical parts or their drawings and arranging them into
groups having similar features from either the design point of view or the processing point of view.
• For this purpose, shop-floor experience is an added asset for the planning engineers. The part families thus arrived at will form the basis
for work cell.
• This method is fast and simple and is useful when the part mix is not complex.
Classification and Coding:
• Classification is the process of separating the parts into groups or families depending on the characteristic attributes based on a set of
rules or principles. Coding is the process of providing a symbol to the component. These symbols should have meanings that reflect the
attributes of the part, thereby facilitating further analysis.
• There are different coding systems, no, one universally accepted system. Each system varies with other, as the representation gets
changed.
Functions:
• Identifying and filing data for retrieval purpose The system should be able to retrieve the requisite information in a timely manner.
• Forming a basis for inference and prediction about group members The coding system should be able to predict certain coexistent
properties of a family based on the likenesses and differences of the attributes used to form the family. The predictive worth of the
classification and coding system depends on the homogeneity of the group formed, based on the clear and concise selection of attributes
that eliminates arbitrary and random groupings.
• Providing explanatory information about the family groupings There should be a clear rationale for the joint attributes of items within a
family, for the formation of groups, and for the hierarchy of the attributes that are classified.
Three types of coding systems:
• Hierarchical/Monocode
• Attribute/Polycode
• Hybrid/Mixed
 Three Types of Coding Systems
Monocode:
•Structure: Hierarchical, similar to a decision tree.
•Information: Each character builds upon the previous one, effectively "drilling down" for specific details.
•Advantages:
• Fast population subdivision. Fast grouping, good for design departments.
• Based on Processing Requirements (shape, size, material)
• Efficient for capturing shape, material, and size (valuable in design departments).
•Disadvantages:
• Difficult to interpret individual code digits and their meanings.
Polycode:
•Structure: Attribute-based, independent characters.
(Each character independently signifies a specific feature of the part)
•Information: Each character represents a specific feature of the part (material, size, etc.).
•Advantages:
• Easy information retrieval based on individual digits.
(Easier to interpret individual digits)
• Flexible for describing various features.
•Disadvantages:
• Codes can become lengthy and cumbersome., Can be complex
• No logical flow between digits makes comprehensive coverage difficult.
Hybrid Code:
•Combines: Leverages the strengths of both Monocode and Polycode.
•Structure: Starts with a Monocode section for initial grouping, followed by a Polycode section for specific details within that group.
•Advantages:
• More compact than pure Polycode.
• Maintains efficient retrieval (easy identification) of parts with specific characteristics.
• Efficient balance between grouping and detailed information. (Preferred in Manufacturing, as it caters both design and processing needs)
 OPITZ Coding System
• The most common and widely used coding system is that developed by Professor H Opitz. The Opitz Coding System is a widely used
method for classifying parts in Group Technology (GT). It combines aspects of both monocode and polycode structures to effectively
categorize parts based on manufacturing requirements.
• It is a 9-digit code with the first 5 forming the primary code (Form Code) while the last four, the secondary code (Supplementary Code).
• The first five digits are used as given in Table 18.3. The classification proceeds further with the different first digit values of 3 to 9. Each
digit has a meaning which needs to be ascertained from the coding system.
ADVANTAGES:
•Efficient Classification: The Opitz code effectively groups similar parts based on both design and manufacturing requirements.
•Improved Design and Manufacturing: By grouping similar parts, the system facilitates the use of standardized designs, processes, and
tooling, leading to efficiency gains.
•Simplified Information Retrieval: The code structure allows for easy retrieval of parts with specific characteristics.
 MICLASS Coding System
The MICLASS (Metal Institute Classification) was developed, to develop a system for both design and manufacturing needs.
FUNCTIONS:
• Standardize engineering drawings
• Retrieve drawings based on classification
• Standardize process routing
• Automate process planning
• Select parts to be processed on a group of machine tools.
MICLASS is an expandable hybrid code system of up to 30 digits, while the first twelve digits have been standardized. These digits relate to
shape, form, dimensions, tolerances, and materials. It combines elements of both monocode and polycode structures.
ADVANTAGES:
•Efficient classification: The standardized structure
allows for quick and accurate classification of parts
based on their design and manufacturing needs.
•Group technology: MICLASS facilitates grouping similar
parts together based on their codes, enabling
companies to leverage GT principles.
•Standardized processes: By grouping similar parts,
companies can develop standardized processes and
tooling for part families, leading to increased efficiency.
•Improved information retrieval: The code provides a
comprehensive overview of a part's design and
manufacturing requirements,
making it easier to retrieve relevant information from
databases.
 Production Flow Analysis
Production-flow analysis helps in identifying the part families as well as grouping the machine cells. In
order to carry out the PFA, it is necessary to collect all the information related to the parts and their
processing to be made as part of the system.
Data Collection:
• The main data required to perform PFA is the information about the route taken by the part throughout,
to complete all the processing operations. This is normally present in a sheet called route sheet or
process sheet.
• Normally, in this sheet, each processing operation to be performed is associated with a machine tool.
From the route sheet, the part number and machine routing (operation sequence) for every part can be
obtained.
• Additional information that is useful is lot size, time standards, annual demand, etc., which could be
used to identify the capacity required in terms of cells and number of machines.
Sorting of Process Routing:
• The data collected before needs to be grouped in this step so as to achieve similarity in the process
routings. So, all the processing operations are coded into numbers or characters. Using these codes,
each part is listed as a series of codes representing the sequence in which these operations are to be
carried out.
• Then a sorting procedure is applied on these routings such that parts with identical routes are grouped
together. The actual number of parts in a particular group may vary from one (unique part) to many.
PFA Chart:
• The route sheets of all the parts are then organized in the form of a matrix. This chart is called the part
machine incidence matrix. In this matrix, the entry of ‘1’ represents where the part needs to visit that
particular machine. When no visitation is required, a ‘0’ is placed or for convenience in reading, it is left
blank.
• Grouping is the main criterion, while forming the chart. Allows a process layout of the plant to be
converted into a more efficient product layout with the current data.
 Production Flow Analysis
• The Production Flow Analysis (PFA) is a systematic procedure for finding the families and is used by many companies, but it involves
subjective judgements and becomes cumbersome for large numbers of components and/or machines.
• Even though the methods were simple, logical and efficient, the limitation of these procedures is that the incidence matrix considers only
the information on the relationship between the parts and the machines. It doesn’t consider the unique processing time and demand
requirements of each part on different machines but implicitly assumes uniform load.
• As a result, the production cell formed may not be balanced. If the block diagonal form is not obtained, resolution of the exceptional parts
is required.
Advantages
• PFA starts with Factory Flow Analysis (FFA) that forms departments (major groups), which complete all the parts they make, before
attempting to form groups and families.
• PFA only plans the change from process organization GT. It doesn’t consider any changes in plant, product design, or processing methods,
or any sub-optimizations such as cost minimization.
• PFA does not accept the total machine/part matrix as found. It modifies it, before using it to find groups, into a module/machine matrix,
based on a ranking of the machines, to give precedence to those that can only be in one group.
• PFA never expects to find a pure division into groups with the existing process routes. It accepts that it will normally be necessary and
possible to reallocate some processing operations from one machine to another, and it includes a formal step for doing this in Group
Analysis (GA).

IGNORED CLUSTER ANALYSIS!!!

Cellular Manufacturing