Common

Mineral
Deposit
JEF MICHAEL L. DAHUYLA
BSEM – 04
COMMON MINERAL DEPOSITS

01 VEIN DEPOSITS

02 PORPHYRY DEPOSITS

03 SKARN DEPOSITS
VOLCANOGENIC
04 MASSIVE SULFIDE
(VMS) DEPOSITS
01
VEIN DEPOSITS

➔ Vein deposits are a type of mineral

deposit that consist of a localized zone
of fracture-filling minerals. They
typically form within fractures or
fissures in rock and are often found in
or near fault zones, where rocks have
been fractured and deformed. Vein
deposits can contain a variety of
metallic and non-metallic minerals,
including gold, silver, copper, lead, z
inc, tin, tungsten, and fluorite,
among others.
 VEIN DEPOSITS

Vein deposits are formed through a variety of processes, including

hydrothermal activity, metamorphism, and weathering. The minerals that
make up vein deposits are typically deposited from hydrothermal fluids that
have migrated through the rock, often from deep within the Earth’s crust.

These fluids can be rich in dissolved minerals, which can precipitate out of the
fluid and form vein deposits as the fluids cool and react with the surrounding
rock.
Vein deposits can be relatively small or can extend for many kilometers, and
they can occur in a variety of rock types, including igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic rocks. The size and grade of vein deposits can vary widely,
and their economic viability depends on a number of factors, including the
concentration of the desired minerals, the size and shape of the deposit, and
 VEIN DEPOSITS

Vein deposits are typically discovered through mineral exploration

programs, which involve a variety of geological, geochemical, and
geophysical techniques. These techniques can include surface
mapping and sampling, airborne and ground-based geophysical
surveys, drilling, and other methods.

Once a vein deposit has been discovered and evaluated, mining and
processing techniques are used to extract and recover the valuable
minerals. These techniques can vary depending on the nature of the
deposit and the type of minerals being mined, but can include
underground mining, open-pit mining, and various processing methods
 VEIN DEPOSITS

Vein deposits are typically discovered through mineral exploration

programs, which involve a variety of geological, geochemical, and
geophysical techniques. These techniques can include surface
mapping and sampling, airborne and ground-based geophysical
surveys, drilling, and other methods.

Once a vein deposit has been discovered and evaluated, mining and
processing techniques are used to extract and recover the valuable
minerals. These techniques can vary depending on the nature of the
deposit and the type of minerals being mined, but can include
underground mining, open-pit mining, and various processing methods
Vein deposits can be classified into several different types based on their
origin and composition. Some of the common types of vein deposits include:
Fault-related
HYDROTHERMAL VEINS PEGMATITE VEINS
veins
● These veins are formed when hot fluids ● These veins are composed of • These veins are
(usually from magmatic sources) flow through extremely coarse-grained minerals formed by the
rocks, and the minerals within the fluids
and are formed from highly fluid, movement of
crystallize in the fractures and cavities in the
host rock. Hydrothermal veins can be water-rich magmas. Pegmatite veins rocks along faults.
subdivided into several subtypes based on their can be a source of rare and valuable The fluids that
composition, such as quartz veins, carbonate minerals such as lithium, tantalum, flow through the
veins, and sulfide veins. and beryllium. fault can deposit
minerals in
CONTACT METAMORPHIC
SHEAR ZONE VEINS fractures or void
VEINS spaces in the
● These veins are formed by the ● These veins are formed when a body of rocks adjacent to
movement of rocks along fault planes or magma intrudes into a pre-existing rock, the fault.
shear zones. The intense pressure and causing the rock to be heated and
friction during the movement of the recrystallized. As the rock recrystallizes,
rocks can cause fluids to flow along the minerals can be concentrated in veins
along the contact zone between the
zone, leading to the formation of veins.
magma and the host rock.
 FORMATION PROCESSES AND MINERALOGY
Vein deposits are formed when minerals are deposited from hydrothermal fluids that flow through cracks or
fractures in rock, creating veins or mineralized zones within the host rock. The formation of vein deposits is
closely associated with the processes of magmatism and hydrothermalism, and the deposits can range in size from
small veins to large, extensive systems.

The mineralogy of vein deposits is variable and dependent on the source and composition of the hydrothermal
fluids, the host rock, and the conditions of temperature and pressure. Vein deposits can contain a wide range of
minerals, including sulfides, oxides, carbonates, and silicates. Some of the common minerals found in vein
deposits include quartz, calcite, fluorite, pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and magnetite, among
others.

 The texture and structure of vein deposits can also be important in understanding their formation and
mineralogy. Some veins may have a banded texture, with alternating layers of minerals, while others may be
brecciated or shattered, indicating deformation and fracturing during the mineralization process. In addition,
some veins may have complex structural features, such as cross-cutting relationships with other veins,
indicating multiple stages of mineralization or fluid flow.

 Overall, the formation processes and mineralogy of vein deposits are complex and dependent on a variety of
factors, including the nature of the host rock, the composition of the hydrothermal fluids, and the conditions
of temperature and pressure.
 TYPES OF VEIN DEPOSIT
 Vein deposits are classified based on their mineralogy and the geological environment in which they formed. Some common
types of vein deposits include:
 Epithermal Vein Deposits: These deposits are typically found in the uppermost parts of the Earth’s crust, and they form from hot,
mineral-rich fluids that rise from deeper in the crust. Epithermal deposits can contain a wide range of metals, including gold,
silver, copper, lead, and zinc.
 Mesothermal Vein Deposits: These deposits are similar to epithermal deposits, but they form at higher temperatures and
pressures, and they are usually found at greater depths in the Earth’s crust. Mesothermal vein deposits are a major source of gold
and also contain other metals, such as silver, copper, and lead.
 Orogenic Vein Deposits: These deposits are formed during mountain-building events and are often found in association with other
types of mineral deposits, such as porphyry deposits. Orogenic vein deposits typically contain gold, as well as other metals
such as silver, copper, and lead.
 Skarn Vein Deposits: These deposits are formed at the contact between igneous rocks and carbonate rocks. Skarn vein deposits
can contain a wide range of metals, including copper, lead, zinc, gold, and silver.
 Manto Vein Deposits: These deposits are found in sedimentary rocks and are usually associated with volcanic activity. Manto
vein deposits typically contain copper, lead, zinc, and silver.
 Breccia Vein Deposits: These deposits are formed in brecciated rocks (rocks that have been broken up and re-cemented) and can
contain a variety of metals, including gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc.
 Carbonate Replacement Vein Deposits: These deposits are formed when metal-rich fluids replace the carbonate minerals in
sedimentary rocks. Carbonate replacement vein deposits can contain a wide range of metals, including lead, zinc, copper, silver,
and gold.
 Vein Deposits Associated with Plutons: These deposits are found in association with large igneous intrusions, such as batholiths.
They can contain a wide range of metals, including gold, copper, lead, and zinc.
 FORMATION PROCESSES AND MINERALOGY
 Vein deposits are formed when minerals are deposited from hydrothermal fluids that flow through cracks or
fractures in rock, creating veins or mineralized zones within the host rock. The formation of vein deposits is
closely associated with the processes of magmatism and hydrothermalism, and the deposits can range in size
from small veins to large, extensive systems.

 The mineralogy of vein deposits is variable and dependent on the source and composition of the hydrothermal
fluids, the host rock, and the conditions of temperature and pressure. Vein deposits can contain a wide range
of minerals, including sulfides, oxides, carbonates, and silicates. Some of the common minerals found in vein
deposits include quartz, calcite, fluorite, pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and magnetite, among others.

 The texture and structure of vein deposits can also be important in understanding their formation and
mineralogy. Some veins may have a banded texture, with alternating layers of minerals, while others may be
brecciated or shattered, indicating deformation and fracturing during the mineralization process. In addition,
some veins may have complex structural features, such as cross-cutting relationships with other veins,
indicating multiple stages of mineralization or fluid flow.

 Overall, the formation processes and mineralogy of vein deposits are complex and dependent on a variety of
factors, including the nature of the host rock, the composition of the hydrothermal fluids, and the conditions
of temperature and pressure.
 MINING OF VEIN DEPOSITS
 Vein deposits can be mined using underground mining techniques, such as drift and
fill, cut-and-fill, and room and pillar mining. In general, these techniques involve
creating tunnels or other excavations to gain access to the vein, extracting the ore
from the vein, and transporting it to the surface for processing.

 Drift and fill mining involves driving horizontal tunnels (drifts) along the length of the
vein, then filling the excavated space with waste rock or backfill. Cut-and-fill mining
is similar, but involves creating vertical slices of the deposit and then filling them with
waste material. Room and pillar mining is a method in which the deposit is mined in a
grid-like pattern, leaving behind columns of ore to support the roof of the mine.

Vein deposits are often high-grade and can be quite narrow, making them difficult and
expensive to mine. However, they can be very lucrative if the mineralization is rich
enough, which has led to extensive exploration and mining for vein-type deposits
throughout history.
 ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE AND USES
 Vein deposits can contain a variety of economically significant minerals, including precious metals
such as gold and silver, base metals such as copper, lead, and zinc, and industrial minerals such as
fluorspar, barite, and talc. The economic significance of a vein deposit depends on factors such as the
size and grade of the deposit, the ease of extraction, and the market demand for the minerals present.

 Vein deposits have historically been a major source of precious metals and were the main source of gold
and silver before the development of heap leaching and other extraction technologies. Vein deposits are
often mined underground using a variety of mining methods, such as cut and fill, shrinkage, and
sublevel stoping.

 Industrial minerals such as fluorspar and barite are also commonly mined from vein deposits.
Fluorspar, which is used in the production of hydrofluoric acid and fluorocarbons, is typically mined
using underground methods. Barite, which is used as a weighting agent in drilling fluids in the oil and
gas industry, is often mined from bedded deposits that are associated with hydrothermal veins.

Overall, vein deposits can be economically significant sources of a wide variety of

minerals, and their exploitation has played a significant role in the development of the
mining industry.
 NOTABLE VEIN DEPOSITS
here are numerous notable vein deposits across the world, which have played a significant role in the development of the
mining industry. Here are a few examples:

 Comstock Lode: Located in Nevada, USA, Comstock Lode was a major silver deposit discovered in 1859. It was one of
the first major vein deposits discovered in the US, and played a significant role in the development of the mining
industry in the region.
 Bendigo Goldfield: Located in Victoria, Australia, the Bendigo Goldfield is a well-known vein deposit that was
discovered in the mid-1800s. It is known for its high-grade gold deposits, and has been a significant source of gold for
more than a century.
 Mother Lode Gold Belt: Located in California, USA, the Mother Lode Gold Belt is a 120-mile-long zone of gold-
bearing quartz veins. It has been a significant source of gold in the region since the 1850s, and has been mined
continuously since then.
 Red Lake Gold Mine: Located in Ontario, Canada, the Red Lake Gold Mine is one of the largest and highest-grade
gold mines in the world. The gold is contained in a network of quartz veins, and the deposit has been mined since the
1940s.
 Oyu Tolgoi: Located in Mongolia, Oyu Tolgoi is one of the largest copper and gold deposits in the world. The deposit is
contained in a series of quartz veins that are part of a larger porphyry system.
 La Escondida: Located in Chile, La Escondida is the largest copper deposit in the world. The deposit is contained in a
series of quartz veins that are part of a larger porphyry system.
 Homestake Mine: Located in South Dakota, USA, the Homestake Mine was one of the largest and deepest gold mines
in the world. The gold was contained in a series of quartz veins that were discovered in the late 1800s.
02
PORPHYRY DEPOSITS

➔ Porphyry deposits are a type of mineral

deposit that form from large-scale
hydrothermal systems associated with
intrusive igneous rocks. They are
characterized by the presence of
porphyritic rocks that contain large
crystals (phenocrysts) surrounded by a
fine-grained matrix (groundmass). The
mineralization in porphyry deposits is
typically associated with hydrothermal
fluids that circulate through the
porphyritic rocks, depositing minerals
such as copper, gold, molybdenum,
and silver in the form of sulfides and
other minerals.
 TYPES OF PORPHYRY DEPOSITS
• Large scale: Porphyry deposits are large in size, often covering several
square kilometers.
• Age: Porphyry deposits typically form in a relatively short time period,
typically 1 to 5 million years after the formation of the associated
intrusive igneous rock.
• Mineralization: Porphyry deposits are typically mineralized with
copper, gold, molybdenum, and silver. The minerals are typically found
as sulfides and other minerals in the form of veins and disseminations.
• Geology: Porphyry deposits are associated with intrusive igneous rocks,
such as granites and diorites. The mineralization is typically related to
hydrothermal fluids that circulate through the porphyritic rocks,
depositing minerals as they cool and equilibrate with the surrounding
rock.
 TYPES OF PORPHYRY DEPOSITS
• Large scale: Porphyry deposits are large in size, often covering several
square kilometers.
• Age: Porphyry deposits typically form in a relatively short time period,
typically 1 to 5 million years after the formation of the associated
intrusive igneous rock.
• Mineralization: Porphyry deposits are typically mineralized with copper,
gold, molybdenum, and silver. The minerals are typically found as
sulfides and other minerals in the form of veins and disseminations.
• Geology: Porphyry deposits are associated with intrusive igneous rocks,
such as granites and diorites. The mineralization is typically related to
hydrothermal fluids that circulate through the porphyritic rocks,
depositing minerals as they cool and equilibrate with the surrounding
rock.
 MODELING OF PORPHYRY DEPOSITS
• 3D geological modeling: 3D geological modeling is used to create a digital representation of
the geometry and mineralization of a porphyry deposit. This model can be used to evaluate the
distribution of minerals, the orientation of mineralization, and the size and shape of the deposit.
• Resource estimation: Resource estimation is used to estimate the size and grade of a
porphyry deposit based on drilling and other geological data. This information is used to
estimate the economic value of the deposit.
• Grade-tonnage modeling: Grade-tonnage modeling is used to estimate the relationship
between the grade and size of a porphyry deposit. This information is used to estimate the size of
the deposit and the potential for further exploration.
• Hydrothermal modeling: Hydrothermal modeling is used to evaluate the conditions under
which the mineralization in a porphyry deposit formed, such as temperature, pressure, and fluid
chemistry. This information is used to understand the processes that led to the formation of the
deposit and to guide future exploration.

Overall, the modeling of porphyry deposits is an important tool for evaluating the potential of these
deposits and for guiding exploration and development activities.
 THE BASICS
The basics of porphyry deposits can be summarized as follows:

 Definition: Porphyry deposits are a type of mineral deposit that form from large-scale hydrothermal
systems associated with intrusive igneous rocks.
 Characteristics: Porphyry deposits are characterized by the presence of porphyritic rocks that contain
large crystals (phenocrysts) surrounded by a fine-grained matrix (groundmass). The mineralization in
porphyry deposits is typically associated with hydrothermal fluids that circulate through the
porphyritic rocks.
 Minerals: Porphyry deposits are typically mineralized with copper, gold, molybdenum, and silver. The
minerals are typically found as sulfides and other minerals in the form of veins and disseminations.
 Geology: Porphyry deposits are associated with intrusive igneous rocks, such as granites and diorites.
The mineralization is typically related to hydrothermal fluids that circulate through the porphyritic
rocks.
 Modeling: Modeling is used to evaluate the potential of porphyry deposits, including 3D geological
modeling, resource estimation, grade-tonnage modeling, and hydrothermal modeling. These models
help to understand the size, shape, and mineralization of the deposit and to guide exploration and
development activities.
03
SKARN DEPOSITS
➔ Skarn deposits are a type of ore
deposit formed by metasomatic
replacement in carbonate rocks,
typically limestone or dolomite. They
are characterized by their association
with skarn, a coarse-grained, silicate-
rich metamorphic rock that is formed
by the interaction of hot, magmatic
fluids with carbonate rocks.
 SKARN DEPOSITS
Skarn deposits are often found in the contact zones between intrusive
igneous rocks, such as granites, and carbonate rocks. They can also
form in other settings where carbonate rocks come into contact with
hot, metal-rich fluids, such as around faults or in hydrothermal
systems.

Skarn deposits have been historically significant as a source of

copper, iron, and other metals. They were first recognized as an
important mineral deposit type in the late 19th century in Europe
and have since been found in many parts of the world. Today, skarn
deposits remain an important source of metals, and are often
associated with large-scale mining operations.
Skarn deposits are classified based on the type of igneous rock that gave rise
to them. The main types of skarn deposits are:
GOLD
CALC-SILICATE SKARNS MAGNETITE SKARNS:
SKARNS:
● These are the most common type of ● Magnetite Skarns: These are skarns that • These are skarns
skarn deposit and are associated with are associated with magnetite-rich rocks that are
calc-alkaline igneous rocks such such as mafic or ultramafic intrusions. associated with
as diorite, quartz diorite, They are typically characterized by the gold
and granodiorite. They typically presence of magnetite and pyroxene, as
mineralization
well as other minerals such as garnet and
contain minerals such and are typically
amphibole.
as garnet, pyroxene, associated with
and wollastonite. granitic rocks.
CHLORITE SKARNS TUNGSTEN SKARNS: They are
characterized by
● These skarns are associated with rocks ● These are skarns that are enriched in the presence of
that are rich in chlorite, such as tungsten and are typically associated with minerals such as
serpentinized ultramafic rocks. They granitic rocks. They are characterized by pyrrhotite,
typically contain minerals such as the presence of minerals such as pyrite, and
garnet, epidote, and actinolite. scheelite, wolframite, and arsenopyrite.
molybdenite.
 FORMATION PROCESSES AND MINERALOGY
 Skarn deposits form when hot, mineral-rich fluids invade and react with the host rock, causing the
formation of a metamorphic rock called skarn. Skarns can form in a variety of rock types, including
limestones, dolomites, and shales, and the nature of the skarn that is formed is dependent on the
composition of both the intruding fluid and the host rock.

 During the formation of skarn, the invading fluid can cause the chemical alteration of the host rock,
leading to the formation of new minerals. The alteration can also cause the formation of new textures
in the rock, including foliation and banding. The new minerals formed during skarn formation can
include a wide variety of minerals, including garnet, pyroxene, amphibole, and other silicate minerals.

 Skarns can also contain ore minerals, which may precipitate from the mineral-rich fluids that are
responsible for the formation of the skarn. Common ore minerals found in skarns include copper, iron,
zinc, tungsten, molybdenum, and gold. The specific ore minerals that are present in a skarn deposit
are dependent on the composition of the invading fluid and the host rock.

Overall, the mineralogy and texture of skarn deposits can be quite complex and variable, and the
specific characteristics of any given deposit will be dependent on the specific geologic setting in
which it formed.
 ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE AND USES
 Skarn deposits are economically significant sources of metals such as
copper, gold, silver, zinc, lead, tungsten, and iron, among others.
They are important because they can be large and high-grade deposits, and
can be mined using underground or open-pit methods.

 Skarn deposits are particularly valuable for their tungsten and iron ore
resources, as well as their high-grade copper and gold mineralization. They
are also important sources of rare earth elements and other strategic metals,
which are used in a wide range of industrial and technological applications.

In addition to their economic importance, skarn deposits are also of scientific

interest because they provide valuable information about the geological
processes that formed them, as well as the tectonic and magmatic history of the
region in which they are found.
 EXAMPLES OF SKARN DEPOSITS AROUND THE
WORLD
There are many skarn deposits around the world, some of which are significant sources of
minerals. Here are a few examples:

 Bingham Canyon Mine, USA: This is one of the largest open-pit copper mines in the world, located in Utah, USA. It is
primarily a copper-gold-molybdenum porphyry deposit, but also includes skarn mineralization with significant reserves of
tungsten.
 Antamina Mine, Peru: This is a large copper-zinc-silver-gold skarn deposit located in the Andes Mountains of Peru. It is one of
the largest producers of copper and zinc in the world.
 Yerington Mine, USA: This is a copper-gold skarn deposit located in Nevada, USA. It was historically an important source of
copper, but has been inactive for several decades.
 Tungsten Queen Mine, USA: This is a historic tungsten skarn deposit located in North Carolina, USA. It was an important source
of tungsten during World War II.
 Mittersill Mine, Austria: This is a tungsten skarn deposit located in the Austrian Alps. It is one of the largest tungsten deposits in
the world.
 Daheishan Mine, China: This is a large iron-copper skarn deposit located in Liaoning Province, China. It is one of the largest iron
deposits in China.
 Bayan Obo Mine, China: This is a large iron-REE-fluorite skarn deposit located in Inner Mongolia, China. It is the largest REE
deposit in the world.
 Renison Bell Mine, Australia: This is a tin skarn deposit located in Tasmania, Australia. It is one of the largest tin deposits in the
world.
 El Teniente Mine, Chile: This is a large copper skarn deposit located in the Andes Mountains of Chile. It is one of the largest
copper mines in the world.
These are just a few examples of the many skarn deposits found around the world.
 SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS
Mineral deposits are concentrations of minerals that can be economically extracted for use.
1. There are many types of mineral deposits, including magmatic deposits, hydrothermal deposits, sedimentary
deposits, metamorphic deposits, and vein deposits.
2. Magmatic deposits form from the cooling and crystallization of magma and include porphyry, skarn, pegmatite,
kimberlite, and carbonatite deposits.
3. Hydrothermal deposits form from hot, mineral-rich fluids that are circulated through rocks, and include porphyry
copper, epithermal gold, and Carlin-type gold deposits, among others.
4. Sedimentary deposits form from the accumulation of sediment and include banded iron formations, sedimentary
phosphate deposits, and evaporite deposits, among others.
5. Metamorphic deposits form from the recrystallization of minerals in response to high heat and pressure and include
some types of gold and copper deposits, as well as some types of gemstones.
6. Vein deposits are narrow, often high-grade, mineralized zones that are typically hosted in fractures or faults in rocks,
and can contain a variety of metals, such as gold, silver, copper, and zinc.
7. Skarn deposits are contact metamorphic deposits that form when hot, mineral-rich fluids interact with carbonate rocks
and can be important sources of copper, iron, tungsten, and other metals.
8. Mineral exploration and mining involve a range of techniques, including geologic mapping, drilling, geophysical
surveys, and geochemical analyses.
9. Mineral deposits are important sources of raw materials for a variety of industries, including construction, energy,
electronics, and manufacturing. However, mineral extraction can have significant environmental impacts, including
habitat destruction, soil erosion, water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions.
 04
VOLCANOGENIC
MASSIVE SULFIDE (VMS)
DEPOSITS

Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits are a type of

mineral deposit that forms on or below the seafloor as a
result of volcanic and hydrothermal activity. They are
typically composed of metal sulfide minerals such
as copper, zinc, lead, gold, and silver, and can also
contain significant amounts of iron, sulfur, and other
elements. VMS deposits are typically small- to medium-
sized and occur in clusters or belts, often in association with
submarine volcanic rocks and hydrothermal vents.

VMS deposits are important sources of base and precious

metals, and have been mined for thousands of years. They
are found in both modern and ancient seafloor settings, and
are typically associated with mid-ocean ridges, island arcs,
and back-arc basins. Some of the most significant VMS
deposits are found in Canada, Australia, Scandinavia, and
the Iberian Peninsula.
04
VOLCANOGENIC
MASSIVE SULFIDE
(VMS) DEPOSITS
 GEOLOGIC SETTING
 Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits are formed in association with submarine volcanic
activity, typically located along the margins of tectonic plates in areas of volcanic and/or seismic
activity. The deposits are commonly associated with ancient island arcs or back-arc basins,
where the seafloor has been modified by subduction-related volcanism.

 VMS deposits are generally hosted by volcanic and sedimentary rocks, including basaltic to
andesitic volcanic rocks, rhyolitic volcanic rocks, and marine sedimentary rocks. They are
commonly found in greenstone belts, which are geological terranes that contain a variety of
volcanic and sedimentary rocks, and are associated with ancient volcanic arcs.

The geologic setting of VMS deposits is characterized by the presence of hydrothermal vents or
“black smokers” on the seafloor, which release hot, metal-rich fluids into the ocean. These fluids
react with seawater and with the surrounding rocks, depositing minerals in and around the vents.
The deposits may occur in clusters or “fields” along submarine volcanic chains, and may be
associated with other types of mineral deposits, such as seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) and
submarine exhalative deposits.
There are several types of VMS (volcanogenic massive sulfide) deposits,
which are classified based on their geologic setting and mineralogy. Here
are some of the common types:

BIMODAL VMS DEPOSITS: FELSIC VMS DEPOSITS: SEDIMENTARY

EXHALATIVE
● These deposits are formed in volcanic ● These deposits are formed in (SEDEX) VMS
environments that are characterized by volcanic environments that are
the presence of both mafic and felsic
DEPOSITS
dominated by felsic rocks, such as
rocks. The mafic rocks are usually
basaltic and the felsic rocks are usually
rhyolite and dacite. • These deposits are
rhyolitic or dacitic. formed in
sedimentary
basins and are
CYPRUS TYPE VMS associated with
MAFIC VMS DEPOSITS
DEPOSITS the discharge of
hydrothermal
● These deposits are named after the ● These deposits are formed in fluids through
massive sulfide deposits in Cyprus,
which are formed in submarine volcanic
volcanic environments that sedimentary
are dominated by mafic rocks, rocks.
environments and are associated with
ophiolites (segments of oceanic crust). such as basalt.
Each type of VMS deposit has its own unique characteristics in terms of
geologic setting, mineralogy, and economic significance.

CYPRUS TYPE VMS DEPOSITS KUROKO TYPE VMS DEPOSITS

● These deposits are named after the
massive sulfide deposits in Cyprus, which
are formed in submarine volcanic
environments and are associated with
ophiolites (segments of oceanic crust).
● These deposits are named after the massive
sulfide deposits in Japan’s Kuroko mine, which
are formed in submarine volcanic environments
and are characterized by their high content of
zinc, lead, and copper.

ALGOMA TYPE VMS DEPOSITS

● These deposits are named after the massive sulfide deposits in Canada’s
Algoma district, which are formed in submarine volcanic environments and
are characterized by their high content of copper.
 FORMATION PROCESSES AND MINERALOGY
 Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits form from hydrothermal fluids
that originate from volcanic activity. The fluids are rich in sulfur and metals,
and they are often expelled from volcanic vents on the seafloor. When the
hot fluids encounter cold seawater, they cool rapidly, causing the metals and
sulfur to precipitate and form mineral deposits.

 The mineralogy of VMS deposits is complex, with many different minerals

present. The deposits typically consist of layers of metal sulfides, such as
chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and galena, intermixed with gangue minerals
such as pyrite, quartz, and feldspar. The deposits may also contain
significant amounts of gold and silver, as well as minor amounts of other
metals such as cobalt, nickel, and tin. The mineralogy of VMS deposits
can vary depending on the specific geologic setting in which they form.
 ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE AND USES
 VMS deposits are important sources of base metals such as copper, lead,
and zinc, as well as precious metals like gold and silver. They are also a
source of other critical metals like cobalt and tellurium, which are used in
various industries, including electronics, renewable energy, and
aerospace.

 VMS deposits can be highly profitable for mining companies due to their
high metal content and relatively low extraction costs compared to other
deposit types. However, the economic viability of a VMS deposit depends
on a variety of factors, including the grade and tonnage of the deposit,
the accessibility and infrastructure of the site, and the prevailing market
conditions for the metals produced.
 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
 Mining of VMS deposits can have environmental impacts, as with any mining
activity. VMS deposits are often found in areas of natural beauty and ecological
sensitivity, which can exacerbate the environmental effects of mining.

 The mining process can involve the removal of large amounts of soil and rock,
which can lead to soil erosion, altered drainage patterns, and changes in water
quality. In addition, the waste products from mining can contain toxic chemicals,
which can contaminate soils and waterways.

To mitigate these environmental impacts, mining companies are required to follow

environmental regulations and best practices, such as minimizing the amount of
waste produced and properly treating any waste that is generated. In addition, some
mining companies work to rehabilitate the land after mining activities have ceased,
such as by replanting vegetation or restoring habitats for wildlife.
 EXAMPLES OF NOTABLE VMS DEPOSITS
 Some notable VMS deposits around the world include:

1. Kidd Creek Mine, Canada: This is one of the world’s largest and highest-grade
VMS deposits, located in the Timmins district of Ontario. The deposit was
discovered in 1963 and has been in production since 1966.
2. Myra Falls Mine, Canada: Located on Vancouver Island in British Columbia,
this VMS deposit is a significant source of zinc, copper, gold, and silver.
3. Laisvall Mine, Sweden: This VMS deposit is located in the northern part of
Sweden and has been in production since the early 1950s. It is a significant source of
zinc, lead, and copper.
4. Skorpion Zinc Mine, Namibia: This is one of the largest known VMS deposits in
the world and is located in southern Namibia. It is a major source of zinc, and also
produces some lead and silver.
5. Hellyer Mine, Australia: This VMS deposit is located in Tasmania and has been
in production since the 1980s. It is a significant source of zinc, lead, and silver.
 EXAMPLES OF NOTABLE VMS DEPOSITS
6. Neves-Corvo Mine, Portugal: This VMS deposit is located in southern
Portugal and is a major source of copper, zinc, and lead.
7. Boliden Mine, Sweden: This VMS deposit is located in northern Sweden and
has been in production since the early 1920s. It is a significant source of copper,
zinc, lead, gold, and silver.
8. Kuroko Mine, Japan: This VMS deposit is located in northern Japan and was
one of the most important mines in the country until its closure in 1981. It was a
significant source of copper, lead, zinc, and silver.
9. Golden Grove Mine, Australia: This VMS deposit is located in Western
Australia and has been in production since the early 1990s. It is a significant
source of copper, lead, zinc, gold, and silver.
10. Navan Mine, Ireland: This VMS deposit is located in County Meath, Ireland
and was in production from the late 1970s until 2006. It was a significant
source of zinc, lead, and copper.
 SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS
VMS (volcanogenic massive sulfide) deposits are a type of mineral deposit that form on the
seafloor in submarine environments. Key points about VMS deposits include:

 VMS deposits form through the interaction of seawater and hot, metal-rich fluids that
are expelled from the seafloor.
 VMS deposits are typically composed of sulfide minerals that contain copper, zinc, lead,
and other valuable metals.
 VMS deposits can be economically significant and have been mined around the world for
their metal content.
 Examples of notable VMS deposits include the Kidd Creek deposit in Canada, the Iberian
Pyrite Belt in Spain and Portugal, and the Kuroko deposit in Japan.
 Environmental issues associated with VMS mining can include acid mine drainage and
the release of heavy metals into the environment.

Overall, VMS deposits are an important type of mineral deposit that have played a significant
role in human history and continue to be a target of mineral exploration and mining today.