RT Level II 8-10

Radiographic Testing
Compiled for ASNT by

Bahman Zoofan
The Ohio State University
Level II
Lesson 6
Specialized
Radiographic Applications
Introduction
1. A quality radiograph should have

the following properties:
a. Low distortion.
b. High definition.
c. High contrast.
d. Adequate density.
Introduction
2. This lesson presents information

obtained in the field and laboratory
from different exposure techniques.
Introduction
3. With a basic knowledge and

understanding of the
radiographic process,
radiographers can produce
effective radiographic
procedures for different test
objects.
Introduction
4. Proper film processing is an

essential aspect of proper
radiographic practice.
Selection of Equipment
1. Selection of equipment for a

radiographic test involves the
following two decisions:
a. Selection of X-radiography or
gamma radiography.
b. Selection of specific X-ray or
gamma ray equipment.
2. Before selecting radiographic

equipment for a specific task, it
must be determined that
radiography will produce the
desired test results.
3. The test should be thoroughly

analyzed to be sure that the
results of a radiographic test
justify the time, effort and cost.
4. By knowledgeable choice of film,

exposure and radiographic
techniques, any particular
equipment can be used for a
variety of tasks.
5. The following are reasons for

selecting gamma rays:
a. Necessity of high radiation
energy.
b. Field tests in areas where
electrical power is difficult to
obtain.
c. Areas where X-rays cannot be

used due to physical
restrictions.
d. Simultaneous exposures of
many test objects.
6. Before selecting radiographic
equipment for a specific test, the
radiographer must consider all aspects
of the job.
a. Availability of the equipment.
b. The time allocated for the test.
c. The number or frequency of
similar object tests.
Accessory Equipment
1. A radiation source, a test object

and film are the main elements
needed to make a radiograph.
2. To create acceptable radiographs,
additional equipment is required,
which will be discussed in this
lesson.
Diaphragms, Collimators and Cones
1. Diaphragms, collimators and cones

(shown in the next figure) are
designed to limit the area of
radiation.
2. They are made of lead or other
dense materials, like tungsten,
fitted to the X-ray tube or built to
contain a gamma ray source.
3. They decrease the amount of
scatter radiation by limiting the
beam to the desired test object
area.
4. Many X-ray machines have
built-in adjustable diaphragms
designed so that the beam covers a
standard film size at a fixed
distance.
Filters
1. The role of a radiation filter is to

absorb the soft radiation of the
beam (i.e., the radiation with
longer wavelengths and less
penetration power).
Filters
2. Filters accomplish two purposes:

a. They reduce subject contrast,
permitting a wide range of test
object thicknesses to be
recorded with one exposure.
b. They eliminate scatter caused
by soft radiation.
Filters
3. Filters are made of sheets of metal

having high atomic numbers –
usually brass, copper, steel or lead,
as shown in the following figure.
4. Filters are particularly useful in
radiography of objects with small
object contrast and thin sections.
Filters
Filters
5. The material and thickness of the

test object, especially its range of
thickness, determines the
necessary filter.
6. In radiography of steel, good
results have been obtained by the
following methods.
Filters
a. Using lead filters, 3% of the

maximum test object
thickness.
b. Using copper filters, 20% of
the maximum test object
thickness.
Screens
1. Screens are used in most

radiographic techniques because
they reduce the exposure time,
improve the quality of the image
and increase contrast. Two types
of radiographic screens are
used:
Screens
a. Fluorescent: Usually calcium

tungstate with lead, these
types of screens are used
when exposure time is a
factor.
Screens
b. Lead: Lead screens produce

high quality radiographs. A
0.005 in. (0.013 cm) thickness
is used for the front of the film
(top screen), and a 0.01 in.
(0.025 cm) is used for the
back of the film (bottom
screen).
Fluorescent Screens
1. Fluorescent screens usually

consist of calcium tungstate
bound to a plastic or cardboard
base.
2. Screens are used in pairs with
the film placed between them in
a film holder.
Fluorescent Screens
3. The photographic action on the film

during exposure is the result of the
radiation and the light emitted by
the screens impinging on the film.
This is called the intensification
effect.
Fluorescent Screens
4. Because the emitted light is

diffused, image definition is less
sharp when these screens are
used.
Fluorescent Screens
5. To avoid a blurred image, a

close contact between the
screens and the film is
necessary.
Fluorescent Screens
6. Intensification factor of screens is

defined as:
Intensification factor =
Exposure without screens /
Exposure with screens
Fluorescent Screens
7. The only advantage of using

fluorescent screens is that they
have a high intensification factor of
95%.
8. Due to the inherent poor image
definition characteristic,
fluorescent screens are used only
in special applications.
Fluorescent Screens
9. Practically, their use is limited to

those occasions when a short
exposure is required, for
example radiography of concrete
looking for rebar or wire position.
Fluorescent Screens
10. Fluorescent screens cause

excessive film graininess when
exposed to high-energy
radiation; thus, their use is
largely restricted to the
application of low-energy
radiation.
Fluorescent Screens
11. For higher-energy applications on

thicker materials, they are used to
reduce exposure time.
12. When loading films with screens
inside a film holder, dust, dirt,
stains and scratches should be
avoided.
Fluorescent Screens
13. Touching of the sensitive

surface of the screen should be
avoided, and manufacturer
recommendations should be
followed for cleaning.
14. To prolong their useful life,
direct exposure to ultraviolet
radiation must be avoided.
Lead Screens
1. These screens are usually made

of an antimony and lead alloy
that is more wear resistant than
pure lead.
2. These screens are used in pairs
on each side of, and in close
contact with, the film.
Lead Screens
3. The front screen in most

applications is thinner than the
back screen. Front screens
0.005 in. (0.013 cm) thick and
back screens 0.01 in. (0.025 cm)
thick are commonly used.
Lead Screens
4. Lead screens are particularly

efficient because of their ability
to absorb scattered radiation
(soft radiation), in addition to
increasing the photographic
action on the film due to the
release of electrons in the test
object.
Lead Screens
5. The intensification factor of lead

screens is much lower than that
of fluorescent ones, but the
resulting improvements in image
contrast and definition make
them very popular.
Lead Screens
6. They are used in almost all gamma

ray applications.
7. In use of X-rays, the photographic
effect will start from a certain
kilovoltage, and the film
manufacturer’s recommendations
should be followed.
Lead Screens
8. To ensure the intensification

action of lead screens, they must
be kept free from dirt, grease,
lint, deep scratches, wrinkles or
depressions that affect their
flatness.
Lead Screens
9. The best results can be achieved

with ready-packed films and
screens that are in completely
close contact within a vacuum.
Masking Materials
1. Masking is the practice of covering

or surrounding portions of the test
object with highly absorbent
materials (usually lead) during
exposure.
Masking Materials
2. Masking eliminates much of the

scatter radiation and improves
the image definition at the
boundary and sharp edges of the
test object.
Masking Materials
3. Commonly used masking

materials are lead, barium clay
and metallic shot. (The next figure
shows masking with metallic shot.)
Masking Materials
Image Quality Indicators (IQIs)
1. A standard image quality indicator

(IQI) must be included in every
radiograph (with some exceptions)
as a check on the performance of
the selected radiographic
technique.
2. The purpose of using an IQI is

not to judge the size or to
establish acceptance limits of
discontinuities in the test object.
3. There are a variety of IQIs.
4. The hole type IQI (shown in the

following figure) has three holes
in it. If the thickness of the IQI is
T, then the diameters of the
holes are 1T, 2T, and 4T.
5. Each hole type IQI is identified

by an identification number,
which represents the thickness
of the IQI (or, in some designs,
the thickness of the test object).
6. As shown in the previous figure, if
an ASME IQI has a thickness of
0.025 in. (0.064 cm), it follows
that:
a. The diameter of 1T hole =
0.025 in. (0.064 cm).
b. The diameter of 2T hole =
0.05 in. (0.13 cm).
c. The diameter of 4T hole =
0.1 in. (0.25 cm).
7. In some standards, the selection of

IQI will call for exactly a 2%
sensitivity.
8. The following table indicates the
ASME IQI designations and sizes.
9. Being able to see the outline of the

IQI on the radiograph confirms that
the image contrast is sufficient to
see the required change in the
thickness of the test object.
10. The IQI should be placed on the source
side of the test object during
radiography.
11. Being able to see the required hole
indicates that the film has the required
sensitivity.
12. The IQI is designed to determine the
radiographic quality level, usually
referred to as sensitivity of a
radiograph.
Shim Stock
1. Shim stock is used in radiography
of test objects where the area of
interest is thicker than the nearby
test object thickness (such as
welds).
2. Shim stock comprises thin pieces
of material radiographically similar
to test object materials.
Shim Stock
3. The thickness of shim stock must

be equal to the thickness added
to the test object by the weld (as
shown in the next image).
Shim Stock
Shim Stock
4. The shim is placed underneath

the IQI, between the IQI and the
test object.
5. The length and width of the
shims should always be greater
than the dimensions of IQI.
Film Holders and Cassettes
1. Film holders are designed to

shield film from light and to
protect it from any damage.
2. They are made from a variety of
materials including rubber,
plastic and cardboard.
3. Film holders are flexible and

permit molding the film to the
contours of the test object.
4. Cassettes are specially
designed; some are two-piece,
hinged, rigid film holders that
spring clamp tightly together.
5. Cassettes are of use when

flexibility is not required because
they can hold film and screens
together firmly in place.
6. Rigid cassettes usually are made
of aluminum, a low-absorbent
material.
7. Other types of cassettes are

more flexible and are usually
closed and secured with
masking tape or elastic bands.
Identification and Location Markers
1. Location markers are lead

numbers and letters that help
correlate the radiograph and the
exposure location on the test
object.
2. Location markers also provide
proper coverage of the test
object during radiography.
3. Chalk or paint sticks are commonly

used to mark the part or weld.
4. Using lead letters and numbers
identical to the part number or
weld’s identification number
eliminates any possibility of wrong
identification.
5. Lead letters and numbers are

attached with duct tape or masking
tape.
6. Using right lead identification on the
test object is mandatory in most
radiographic codes.
7. Using location marks and lead

numbers is particularly important in
radiography of pipes in field
inspection.
8. For pipe varying in outside

diameter from 2 to 42 in. (5 to
107 cm), the maximum location
marker spacing may be
determined as follows:
Pipe outside diameter x π /
Number of required films per
exposure
9. For large test objects or large

pipes, radiographic codes usually
recommend a minimum overlap
between each exposure.
10. For pipes, vessels, etc., that

have an outside diameter
greater than 42 in. (107 cm), a
universal number belt with lead
numbers spaced 14 to 15 in.
(35.6 to 38 cm) apart can be
used.
11. An alternative to a universal

number belt is the use of lead
numbers indicating inches (or
centimeters) from a starting
point.
Area Shielding Equipment
1. Proper shielding is necessary for

control of scatter radiation during
radiography.
2. The area in which radiography is
performed must be adequately
protected against both side and
backscatter.
3. In permanent installations, this is

accomplished using lead-shielded
rooms or enclosed cabinets.
4. In field inspections and whenever
permanent installations are not
available, the radiographer uses
lead sheets to shield the primary
radiation.
5. The area immediately beneath or

behind the film should always be
covered with an adequate
thickness of lead. This is a
stipulation of radiographic codes.
Densitometer
1. The densitometer is an
instrument that measures the
density value or graininess of a
developed film.
2. This is done by measuring the
intensity of light transmitted
through the film.
Densitometer
3. Two types of densitometers are
commonly available: analog and
digital.
4. A density calibration strip provided by
the manufacturer should be used to
calibrate a densitometer on a regular
basis in order to show its linearity and
appropriate consistency.
Densitometer
5. ASTM standards have

recommendations for calibrating
and checking the linearity of
densitometers after a certain
period of time.
X-Ray Exposure Charts
1. X-ray exposure charts show the

relationship between material
thickness, kilovoltage and
exposure. (See the next slide for
an example.)
2. Note that the chart applies only to
specific radiographic conditions,
such as:
a. X-ray equipment.
b. Materials.
c. Source-to-film distance (SFD).
d. Film.
e. Processing conditions.
f. Density upon which the chart is
created.
3. Exposure charts are useful to
determine exposures of test objects
of uniform thickness.
4. Charts provided by X-ray tube
manufacturers are accurate only
within ±10% because no two X-ray
machines are identical. Film
developing conditions also play a
significant factor.
5. Each radiographic laboratory

should prepare an exposure
chart for its specific X-ray
equipment, for the type of
material most often
radiographed, the film most
commonly used and its own
processing conditions.
Preparation of an Exposure Chart
1. To prepare an exposure chart, a
series of radiographs is taken using
a stepped wedge of the selected
object material (usually steel).
2. Radiographs are taken with different
kilovoltages (from lower to higher
values) at different exposures with a
specific SFD.
3. All resultant films are processed

together in accordance with
routine work procedure.
4. After these steps, there are two
methods to prepare an exposure
chart:
a. Method A (using a densitometer).
i. The radiographer uses a

densitometer to locate the
desired density on each
stepped wedge thickness on
the process films.
ii. At each point the desired

density (usually D = 2.0)
appears, a corresponding
value of applied kilovoltage,
exposure and wedge
thickness will be collected.
iii. When the desired density

does not appear on a
radiograph, interpolation
will be used to find the
correct material for the
density.
iv. The extracted data are

then plotted on a semi-log
paper.
v. The horizontal line scale is
for material thickness
(thickness of the stepped
wedge).
vi. The kilovoltages

corresponding to the
exposure for a specific
density point (D = 2.0) are
then plotted on a chart
similar to the one
previously shown.
vii. A legend should be

attached to show all the
specific conditions applied
to the prepared chart.
b. Method B (using film

characteristic curves).
i. In this method of preparing an
exposure chart, film
characteristic curves will be
used. This method requires
more calculations but fewer
exposures.
ii. At each selected

kilovoltage, one exposure
is made for the stepped
wedge.
iii. The density of the
radiographs for each
stepped wedge thickness
is measured.
iv. Then by using characteristic
curves, the exposure can
be calculated to give the
desired density (D = 2.0).
v. As before, the resulting
values of exposures,
thicknesses and
kilovoltages are plotted.
vi. Follow the example on

page 93 of the
Classroom Training Book
showing this method.
Film Latitude
1. Film latitude is defined as the

variation in material thickness
that can be radiographed with
one exposure while maintaining
film density within accepted
limits.
2. Exposure charts can also be
prepared to show film latitude.
Film Latitude
3. Either of the above methods can

be followed, except that both the
lowest and highest acceptable
densities are plotted as well.
Gamma Ray Exposure Chart
The following figure presents an

example of a gamma ray exposure
chart.
1. The variables which should be
represented on a gamma ray
exposure chart are:
a. Type of source.
b. Strength of source.
c. SFD.
d. Thickness of material.
e. Type of film.
f. Processing conditions.
2. The parameters are related on

the chart to each of three types
of film.
3. Note that the exposure factor
shown in the vertical axis of the
chart is a logarithmic scale
derived by the given formula in
the chart.
4. The density correction factors (at

the bottom of the chart) are
obtained from the film
characteristic curves. Exposures
can be adjusted to get densities
1, 1.5, 2.5 and 3.0 while an
exposure from density 2.0 is the
reference exposure.
5. Gamma ray exposure charts can

be easily modified to show
material latitude.
6. As shown in the next figure for film

type A, two other parallel curves
have been added for densities 2.5
(above) and 1.5 (below). These
curves are created by using
exposure factors of 1.3 for density
2.5 and 0.71 for density 1.5.
7. The range of material thicknesses

that can be radiographed in one
exposure with resulting densities
between 1.5 and 2.5 can be found
from the horizontal difference
between the 1.5 and 2.5 density
curves.
Dated Decay Curves
1. For gamma radiography, the

radioisotope’s supplier usually
provides dated decay curves, in
which the vertical axis is in
curies and the horizontal axis is
by date. (See the figure on the
next slide.)
Dated Decay Curves
Dated Decay Curves
2. These curves are computer-

generated tables of date versus
source activities for each specific
radioisotope.
3. By using these curves, a
radiographer can find the exact
source strength to make an
exposure calculation.
Dated Decay Curves
4. Knowing the source strength and

a half-life value for a specific
radioisotope, the source strength
versus half-life value can be
plotted on a semi-logarithmic
paper.
Film Characteristic Curves
1. Film characteristic curves, as

previously discussed in Chapter
4 in the Radiographic Testing
Classroom Training Book, are
necessary for a radiographer to
find a new exposure for any
desired density.
Film Characteristic Curves
2. Film manufacturers usually

provide accurate film
characteristic curves, but to
produce more realistic curves, it
is a good practice to base them
on each radiographic laboratory
condition.
Radiographic Equivalent Factors
1. The most common materials for

radiography are usually steel
and aluminum, so these two
materials are considered as
reference materials in
radiography. (See the next slide
for a table showing steel and
aluminum thicknesses.)
2. In radiography of materials other

than steel and aluminum,
radiographic equivalent factors
are calculated (as shown in the
following table).
3. Note that aluminum is typically

used as the standard material at
100 kV energy and below. Steel
is the standard material at higher
voltages.
4. To find the necessary exposure,

the thickness of a material is
multiplied by the corresponding
factor shown in the previous
table to obtain the approximate
equivalent thickness of the
standard metal.
Exposure Variables
The exposure variables that affect

practical radiography techniques
are reviewed in the following
sections.
Movement
1. In radiography, movement of the
source, test object or film during
exposure can cause fuzziness in
the radiographs.
2. In high-wind areas, care must be
taken to ensure that the film and
the exposure/guide tube (for
gamma radiography) do not move
during radiography.
Movement
3. In X-radiography, permanently
installed equipment is designed to
easily set the X-ray tube in a
desired position, eliminating any
risk of movement.
4. For portable X-ray tubes,
professionally designed, heavy-
duty fixtures are used to hold the
X-ray tube in a desired position.
Movement
5. In field radiography using

radioisotopes, the film, test object
and source guide should be held
firmly in position with clamps, duct
tape, wire, magnetic holders, etc.
Movement
6. In any attempt to hold the

source, film and test object firmly
in place, care should be taken to
keep the scatter radiation as low
as possible.
Source Size
1. Source size is a strong factor in

producing sharp images by
reducing geometric unsharpness
(as discussed in Chapter 2 in the
Radiographic Testing Classroom
Training Book).
Source Size
2. In purchasing either X-ray
machines or gamma ray sources,
consideration of the source size is
an important factor.
3. X-ray focal spots vary from
0.08 in.2 (0.5 cm2) down to fractions
of a millimeter, and consequently
the prices are higher with finer focal
spots.
Source Size
4. In purchasing radioisotopes for

specific tasks, besides the source
strength and half-life, the source
size is another important
requirement.
Source Size
5. In gamma radiography, if a
smaller source size is required
for a specific task, source
manufacturers can produce a
smaller isotope with a resulting
lower intensity.
Source Size
6. When X-ray equipment is limited

to what is available, correct
source-to-film distance (SFD)
can produce good images with
focal spots of acceptable
dimensions (as discussed in the
following section).
Source-to-Film Distance (SFD)
1. Source-to-film distance (SFD) in

X-ray and gamma radiography is
an important factor in both image
sharpness and exposure time.
2. A longer SFD creates a sharper

image compared to a shorter
SFD, which results in greater
geometric unsharpness
(penumbra).
3. The equation below provides a

minimum SFD for acceptable
geometric unsharpness:
D = [(d x f ) / 0.02] + d
where D is SFD, d is distance
from the source side of the the
test object to the film and f is
focal spot size.
4. A second means of determining

SFD is this rule of thumb: the
SFD should not be less than 8X
the test object thickness. For
example:
1.5 in. x 8 = 12 in. (30.5 cm)
Radiographic Applications
1. The exposure procedures

discussed in the following
sections are commonly used in
radiography of most test objects.
2. Any of these arrangements may
be used with either X-rays or
gamma rays.
Radiography of Welds
A radiographer should acquire the

following information regarding a
weld test object before applying any
exposure:
1. Weld material.
2. Joint preparation.
Radiography of Welds
3. Weld procedure.
4. Related radiographic standards,
critical and noncritical criteria.
5. Any customer requirements.
Tube Angulation
The radiographer must know the

following information in order to set
the tube angulations for the best
direction of the beam during
exposure:
Tube Angulation
1. Weld penetration.
2. Weld fusion lines.
3. Area of interest.
Incident Beam Alignment
1. The central beam of the radiation

field is the direction of the
incident beam.
2. The effective focal spot size of
an X-ray tube is projected along
this central beam to the area of
interest.
Discontinuity Location
1. Locating discontinuities in thick

test objects is sometimes
necessary for repairing
purposes.
2. Correctly locating and removing
the discontinuities will save time
and materials.
3. An estimation of the depths of
discontinuities cannot be done by a
single exposure.
4. Several methods such as
stereoradiography and double
exposure (discussed in Chapter 8 in
the Radiographic Testing Classroom
Training Book) can be used for
finding discontinuity depths.
Critical and Noncritical Criteria
1. The radiographer must know the

acceptance criteria and area of
interest of every test object.
2. The radiographer must select
film based on film speed and film
sensitivity.
3. The radiographer must

determine the distance and
angle of exposure to give the
least amount of distortion.
4. To provide complete coverage,
the radiographer must determine
the number of necessary
exposures.
5. The radiographer must follow all

radiographic requirements.
Improper Interpretation
of Discontinuities
For a proper interpretation, all
factors of the manufacturing or
welding process should be known
by the interpreter.
Elimination of Distortion
To minimize the distortion in

radiographs:
1. Setting the proper geometry of
exposure is necessary.
2. The source should typically be
perpendicular to the surface of an
object and the plane of the film
(detector).
Proper Identification and Image
Quality Indicator Placement
1. To show the image sensitivity,
appropriate image quality
indicators are added to a test
object.
2. Appropriate identifications are
used to correctly identify each
exposure.
3. Information should be provided
for each exposure such as:
a. Test object number.
b. Weld number.
c. Area number.
d. Date of exposure.
e. Project number.
4. Lead location markers are used for
large areas that require more than
one view. The location markers
correlate the radiograph to the
location on the weld or component.
Radiography of Welded Flat Plates
1. This type of weld is easily

radiographed because its area of
interest is clearly defined. (See
the common butt weld in the
following image.)
2. This weld also has a small
subject contrast.
3. The exposure calculations are

relatively simple.
4. Proper image quality indicators
(IQI) and sufficient shim stock
must be selected to ensure the
correct degree of sensitivity.
Radiography of Welded Corner
Joints
1. The following figures show correct
and incorrect X-ray setups for a
corner joint.
2. The correct setup depends on
welding standards, joint
configuration and design stress.
Radiography of Welded Corner
Joints
Single-Wall Radiography of Tubing
1. The next image illustrates an

example of a single-wall
radiography technique.
2. The circular test object should be
numbered in a clockwise
direction.
3. Lead numbers should be placed

adjacent to the weld and at least
0.125 in. (0.3 cm) from the heat-
affected zone.
4. To determine the area with the least
amount of distortions, deduct 10%
from both sides of the area with the
most visual circumferential changes.
5. Lead arrows can be attached with

adhesive backs at the ends of each
area. Leave these arrows on the
test object until the interpretation of
the radiographs is done.
6. The overlap between each film
should be at least 1 in. (2.5 cm).
Double-Wall Radiography of Tubing
Refer to the following figure for the

setup of double-wall radiography
applications with tube size up to
3.5 in. (9 cm) outside diameter.
Double-Wall Radiography of Tubing
Tubing up to 3.5 in. (9 cm)
Outside Diameter (OD)
1. For tubes with outside diameters
in this range, the elliptical
exposure technique should be
used.
2. By offsetting the location of the
radiation source, both the near
and far side of the weld can be
viewed on a single film.
3. The offset angle, which depends on
the tube OD and tube wall
thickness, should be set in such a
way that far side and near side
images do not become
superimposed.
4. To ensure full coverage of the weld,
a minimum of two exposures at 90º
to each other are necessary.
5. The following figure illustrates a
multiple tube assembly
exposure.
6. The area of interest should be
determined based on the
diversionary beam.
Tubing up to 3.5 in. (9 cm) Outside
Diameter (OD)
7. A relatively large focal film
distance of 48 in. (122 cm) or
more should be applied.
Radiography of Closed Spheres
1. The following figure shows the

radiographic setup for a closed
sphere.
2. The technique is similar to those
used for double-wall tubing.
3. The image quality indicator

should be placed on shim stock
to show the total double-wall
thickness.
4. The offset angle should be
determined by the sphere
diameter.
5. The primary beam should be as

nearly perpendicular as possible
but should not be superimposed.
6. Equally spaced numbering should
be set, taking into account the
geometric radiation distortion
principles.
Radiography of Closed Tanks
1. The next figure shows the

radiographic setup for a closed
tank (when the film and X-ray
tube are both outside).
2. A single source is shown at
various positions.
3. A horizontal exposure from the

upper left should be taken to
cover the circumferential weld at
the tank end.
Radiographic Multiple
Combination Application
1. The following image shows a
radiographic setup with a single
shot for a weld with high degree of
latitude.
2. Film cassettes under the object
can have different types of film and
screen combinations to provide
different film densities.
Radiographic Multiple
Combination Application
Radiography of
Hemispherical Sections
1. The next image shows a
hemispherical section with multiple
welds.
2. The application of a radioisotope
located at the geometric center of
the hemispherical section can cover
all the welds.
Radiography of
Hemispherical Sections
Panoramic Radiography
1. The following figures illustrate

panoramic radiography setup for
piping whose diameter is great
enough to insert a rod anode X-ray.
2. Note that the exposure calculation
is based on single-wall thickness.
3. A radioisotope source at the
center may be used in the same
manner as a rod anode X-ray
tube.
4. In the case of pipe welds, enough
overlap should exist between
films to show the similar marker
on each film to ensure 100%
coverage.
Radiography of Large Pipe Welds
1. For pipe welds with large

diameters, the double-wall
exposure/single-wall viewing
technique can be used (as shown
in the next slide).
2. An elastic cord holds the radiation
source and films in place.
3. Location markers at each end of

the film markers should be used
to show the area of interest or
the right coverage of the weld.
4. A lead letter F should be placed
close to the IQI to show that its
location is at the film side of the
weld.
5. An appropriate shim stock

should be under the IQI.
6. After each exposure, by rotating
the source and using a new film
cassette at the opposite side, the
full coverage of welds should be
ensured.
7. In the case of thicker pipes, the

area of interest at each exposure
should be carefully determined
with a technique shot.
Radiographic Techniques of
1. Alignment of the discontinuities
and the path of the X-ray is the
key to recording finer
discontinuities.
2. The following figure (b) shows a
discontinuity cross section with
less than 2% subject contrast
(along the path AA).
3. Figure (c) shows a correct
discontinuity alignment with
respect to the X-ray beam (A1A1).
Discontinuity Depth
Location Techniques
There are different techniques to
determine the depth of a
discontinuity by radiography:
1. Superimposed single
exposures: Exposures on two
separate films.
Discontinuity Depth
Location Techniques
2. Tube shift method: Exposures
on a single film after moving the
source location (or test object
and film location) a certain
distance. At each exposure, half
of the exposure should be
applied to avoid too much
radiation on the film.
Radiography of Brazed Honeycomb
Four different radiographic

techniques can be used for
evaluation of brazed or bonded
honeycomb. (See the figures
following the next slide.)
Radiography of Brazed Honeycomb
1. Double surface radiographs.

2. Single surface radiographs.
3. Edge member exposures.
4. Vertical tie exposures.
Double Surface Radiograph
Single Surface Radiograph
Edge Member Exposure
Vertical Tie Exposure
Radiography of Semiconductors
1. In the evaluation of semiconductors,

two major areas are of concern:
a. Inconsistent internal
construction.
b. Internal foreign materials.
2. Specific discontinuities associated
with semiconductors include:
a. Loose particles, solder balls,
flakes, weld splash and wires.
b. Loose or open connecting leads
between internal elements and
external terminals.
c. Excessive solder or weld

extrusions.
d. Inclusions or voids in seals or
around lead connections.
e. Inadequate clearance.
Techniques of
Semiconductor Radiography
In radiographic techniques involving
semiconductors, the following
points must be taken into
consideration:
1. X-ray system with beryllium filter at
the tube window should be used.
Techniques of
Semiconductor Radiography
2. Voltage less than 150 kV should
be applied.
3. Extra fine-grain, single-coated
film should be used.
4. Optical magnification of 20X and
sufficient light intensity during
film interpretation should be
used.
Techniques of Semiconductor
Radiography
5. Use correct alignment between
semiconductor and X-ray
directions.
6. Correctly locate the radiographic
source.
7. Ensure proper density in area of
interest.
Alignment of Semiconductors
The following figure demonstrates a

fixture designed to hold the film
along a curvature for which the
X-ray source is located at the
center. In this case, an equal SDI
can be achieved for both edges and
the central points.
Alignment of Semiconductors
Lesson 7
Digital Radiographic Imaging

Introduction
This lesson describes some of the
new developments in digital
radiography. The discussion and
examples include:
1. Techniques of conversion of
X-rays to light and then to
electronic images.
2. Photoconductive conversion of
X-rays to electronic images.
Introduction
3. Photostimulable phosphors.
4. Array detectors.
5. Line detectors.
6. Line scan imaging.
7. Scanning electron beams.
Introduction
Digital systems use discrete

sensors with data from each
detection pixel being read out into a
file structure to form the pixels of
the digital image file.
Development
1. The ability to develop digital

imaging technology that would
be useful for radiographic testing
is largely due to the growth in the
speed and memory of computer
systems.
Development
2. Today, large image files are

common and can be transported,
stored and displayed with
relatively inexpensive computer
systems.
Development
3. The development of X-ray digital
systems basically originated
from the medical community.
4. In the early 1980s, digital
imaging for radiographic
purposes was primarily done by
electronic digitization of the
video signal for a real-time X-ray
system.
Development
5. In the 1970s and 1980s, digital

imaging systems using line
detector arrays were developed.
6. In the late 1970s to early 1980s,
the photostimulable phosphor
array was developed for medical
use. It was used in the NDT
industry in the 1990s.
Development
7. In the 1990s, the development of

large, thin film transistor arrays by
using either amorphous silicon or
amorphous selenium panels
provided the tool that could make
large X-ray images possible.
Development
8. Developments in direct digital

image output for charge coupled
device (CCD) cameras resulted
in CCD arrays that consisted of
millions of pixels.
Detectors for Digital Imaging
1. Digital detectors are used in

numerous applications, such as:
a. Airport security scanning.
b. Medical diagnosis.
c. Inservice NDT.
d. Manufacturing processes.
e. Online production testing.
Detectors for Digital Imaging
f. Pipeline testing for corrosion

damage.
g. Industrial and medical computer
tomography systems.
2. Digital images provide numerical
results important for metrology and
thickness measurements.
Principles of Digital X-Ray Detectors
1. Detection devices that support
larger imaging systems can have
either of the following X-ray capture
materials:
a. X-ray phosphor materials
combined with a photoelectric
device.
b. X-ray photoconductor materials
with an electronic readout
device.
2. The most common detection

systems in operation today are:
a. Flat panel detection systems.
b. Camera systems based on
CCD technology.
c. Storage phosphor systems.
3. Replacement of any of these
systems with film radiographic
techniques depends on the
following criteria:
a. The size of the application.
b. Spatial resolution.
c. Image contrast.
d. Image dynamic range.
e. Required speed.
Charge Coupled Devices
1. CCDs are based on crystalline

silicon.
2. Crystalline silicon is cut from
silicon wafers available in sizes
only as large as 4 to 6 in. (10 to
15 cm) in diameter or less.
3. They are not fabricated in larger
arrays.
Charge Coupled Devices
4. CCD advantage: A large field of
view (FOV) can be accomplished
through:
a. Tiling of the device, or
b. A lens or a fiber optic transfer
device to an X-ray conversion
screen.
5. CCD limitation: Poor light
collection efficiency.
Thin Film Transistor
1. Amorphous silicon, through large

area deposition, offers a solution
to the size constraints of CCDs
while maintaining good light
collection efficiency.
2. It is commercially available with a
pixel pitch smaller than 75 mm.
Thin Film Transistor
3. Amorphous silicon shows good

light collection efficiency from the
phosphor photoconductor
materials.
4. Having small pixels may be a
limiting factor, however.
Light Collection Technology
1. On a per pixel basis, the CCD is

more efficient in collecting the
light produced from the phosphor
materials.
2. For small FOV applications, the
directly coupled CCD approach
provides high spatial resolution
and high light efficiency.
Light Collection Technology
3. For large FOV applications, the

amorphous silicon approach
offers excellent light collection
efficiency.
Radiation Conversion Material
1. Amorphous selenium devices

and amorphous silicon-based
detectors are similar in that both
use thin film transistor readout
circuitry.
2. The difference between the two
devices lies in the X-ray
conversion materials.
Radiation Conversion Material
3. The selenium layer is typically

0.02 in (0.05 cm) thick and offers
direct X-ray collection efficiency
in a sturdy, compact package.
Storage Phosphors
1. The stored charges, due to the

entrapment of X-rays, can be
released when stimulated by
infrared or red laser light.
2. The emitted photostimulated
luminescence can be converted
to an electrical signal that is then
amplified and sampled.
Storage Phosphors
3. These systems have been

widely used in production due to
their practical spatial resolution
and contrast sensitivity.
4. Their flexibility can be compared
to that of industrial films.
5. They are portable and fully
reusable.
Storage Phosphors
6. The advantages of phosphor

screens over film are:
a. The reduction of costly film and
developing processes.
b. The ability to digitally acquire a
film quality image.
Storage Phosphors
c. The high dynamic range.

d. The corresponding benefits of
the digital image file, such as
easy archival and retrieval.
Linear Arrays
1. Linear array detectors are much

like CCDs, except they typically
have pixels in only one
dimension.
2. They may be composed of a
small rectangular array, such as
a 32 x 1024 pixel array.
Linear Arrays
3. The advantage of linear arrays is

their scatter rejection capability.
4. Linear arrays have been
successfully used in computed
tomography application.
Scanning Beam,
Reversed Geometry
1. The reverse geometry system goes
one step further in reducing X-ray
scatter.
2. In this system, the data are acquired
with a small thallium-activated sodium
iodide (NaI:T1) scintillator coupled to a
photomultiplier tube.
3. The X-ray source operates in a
manner similar to a video monitor.
Scanning Beam,
Reversed Geometry
4. The test object is placed on top
of the X-ray source (the opposite
of conventional radiography).
5. The disadvantage of this
approach is the detector size.
6. The detector size is typically
much larger than a typical
industrial X-ray focal spot.
Detection Efficiency
1. Except for photoconductive

selenium-based detectors, the
aforementioned detectors use
some sort of phosphor layer to
capture and convert the X-ray
intensity.
Detection Efficiency
2. The signal-to-noise ratio of a

detector and the image contrast
are dependent on the transfer of
information along the imaging
chain.
Spatial Resolution
1. The spatial resolution of a
detector depends on two main
factors:
a. Detector resolution.
b. Pixel pitch.
2. The accepted way to measure
the spatial resolution is the
modulation transfer function
(MTF).
Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)
1. The MTF measures the signal

modulation as a function of
spatial frequency.
2. Its computation is based on the
Fourier Transform of a line
spread function acquired on an
angled tungsten edge placed
directly on the detector.
3. The next figure shows a typical

MTF curve of up to 10 line pairs
per millimeter.
Gain and Offset Correction
1. Images from digital detectors are
frequently normalized for pixel-to-
pixel gain variation and adjusted
to subtract out the background or
offset.
2. Performing this gain correction
can also be done to flatten the
radiation intensity distribution
across the detector panel.
Gain and Offset Correction
3. Making the radiation beam

intensity more uniform across the
detector can result in wider
latitude in the image.
Radiation Damage
1. Each component in the imaging chain
of digital imaging devices not
appropriately shielded from X-rays or
gamma rays can be damaged by
radiation.
2. Radiation damage is a general term
that refers to any range of damage to
a component, from a subtle change
in performance all the way to failure.
Radiation Damage
3. The damage that occurs in the

electronic circuitry can result in
an increase in the electronic
noise of the device.
4. Each manufacturer uses
proprietary circuitry or various
forms of shielding elements to
prevent these effects.
Radiation Damage
5. Two types of damage include:

a. Afterglow or lag.
b. Gain decrease.
Selection of Systems
to Match Application
Key characteristics to consider in the
selection of a digital radiography
system include:
1. Detection precision and accuracy.
2. System speed.
3. Detection area.
Selection of Systems
to Match Application
4. Volume of the detector for
access to tight locations in an
assembly.
5. Presence of artifices that can
impact detection capability.
Amorphous Silicon Detectors
1. Most new amorphous silicon
designs are based on a flat glass
panel that has undergone a
deposition process resulting in a
coating on one side that contains
several million amorphous silicon
transistors.
2. The transistors are arranged in a
precise array of rows and columns.
Amorphous Silicon Detectors
3. The system components comprise:

a. A receptor incorporating a
phosphor conversion layer.
b. The amorphous silicon array.
c. Readout electronics.
4. Most flat-panel receptors are
designed to provide radiographic
acquisition capability at a rate of
one image every 5 to 10 s.
Amorphous Selenium Detectors
1. Amorphous selenium converters

produce direct conversion from
X-ray to electronic signals.
2. The amorphous selenium
conversion layer exhibits
extremely high resolution.
Charge Coupled Device
Radiographic Systems
1. A CCD is an integrated circuit formed by
depositing a series of electrodes, called
gates, on a semiconductor substrate to
form an array of metal oxide
semiconductor (MOS) capacitors.
2. CCDs, in combination with
X-ray phosphors or scintillators,
eliminate the need for electronic image
intensification.
3. The typical scanned speed of
CCDs is an exposure per frame
of 33 ms.
4. Averaging multiple frames in a
digital processor can improve the
image quality but does not
produce film-quality images.
5. Integration of the charge
produced by light from the
phosphor directly on the CCD
cells can improve the signal-to-
noise ratio.
6. CCDs are available with image
formats as large as 4096 x 4096
pixels and 16 bits.
7. Using fiber optic image transfer
plates with CCDs can reduce
noise.
8. Application of fiber tapers or lens
systems can improve the field of
view of CCD X-ray systems.
9. Compared to a fiber optic taper,
a lens system is less efficient by
a factor of ten or more.
Linear Detector Arrays
1. Linear detector array systems

are ideally suited for production
environments.
2. Examples of applications are in
automotive manufacturing, cargo
transport, food inspection
security and nuclear waste
containment.
Lesson 8
Special Radiographic Techniques

Introduction
In this lesson, the following special

radiographic techniques will be
discussed:
1. Fluoroscopy.
2. Television radiography.
3. Xeroradiography.
Introduction
4. Stereoradiography and double

exposure.
5. Flash radiography.
6. In-motion radiography.
Fluoroscopy
1. Fluoroscopy is an imaging system

in which a real-time X-ray image
can be observed on a fluorescent
screen. (See the next slide for a
schematic diagram of a
fluoroscope.)
Fluoroscopy
Fluoroscopy
2. It is a relatively low-cost, high-

speed process.
3. It can easily adapt to production
line requirements.
Fluoroscopy
4. This system of imaging has the

following disadvantages:
a. It cannot be used on thick or
very dense materials.
b. It has relatively poor sensitivity
compared to film radiography.
c. It does not produce a
permanent record.
Fluoroscopy
5. Despite these limitations, it
shows potential in the following
applications:
a. Rapid scanning of test objects
for gross internal discontinuities.
Fluoroscopy
b. Saving time and money by

preliminary inspection of huge
numbers of test objects before
sending them for further
nondestructive evaluation.
Image Amplifier
1. The image amplifier (or image

intensifier) is designed to
overcome the disadvantages of
fluoroscopy and its low
luminance.
Image Amplifier
2. It also serves to protect the

technician from radiation
exposure.
3. It consists of two main parts: an
image tube and an optical
system. (See the next slide for a
schematic diagram of an image
amplifier.)
Image Amplifier
Television Radiography
1. In converting X-rays into light, the
television technique is relatively
inefficient due to a large energy loss.
2. The X-ray sensitive vidicon tube
(shown in the next slide) is an
advanced technique specifically
designed for radiographic
application.
3. The system is designed for

radiographic testing of small test
objects, such as electronic
assemblies, and in-motion X-ray
testing.
Xeroradiography
1. Xeroradiography is a dry
radiographic process that uses a
thin layer of selenium bonded to
a backing plate of aluminum to
record an X-ray image.
2. A permanent record can be
obtained on paper.
Stereoradiography and
Double Exposure
In the case of thick test objects, two
radiographic methods are available
to determine the depth of a
discontinuity:
1. Stereoradiography.
2. Double exposure (or parallax
radiographic technique).
Stereoradiography
1. This technique provides a

three-dimensional effect using
two radiographs of the test object
and a stereoscope.
Stereoradiography
2. Stereoradiography is not
common in radiography but is of
value in discontinuity location
and structure visualization. (See
the following diagram.)
Stereoradiography
Double Exposure
(Parallax Radiographic Technique)
1. This technique is more practical
than stereoradiography because
it does not depend on human
depth perception.
2. The technique is presented in the
following diagram.
Double Exposure
Double Exposure
3. The distance of the discontinuity
from the film plane (d) or depth is
determined by the following
formula:
d = (bt) / (a + b)
where a is tube shift distance, b
is image shift distance of the
discontinuity on the film and c is
SFD.
Flash Radiography
1. Flash radiography permits the

observation of high-speed events
in opaque materials.
2. Flash radiography freezes the
motion of a high-speed event by
extremely short time duration
exposures (microseconds).
Flash Radiography
3. High voltages with high currents

(as high as 200 A) are used in
this technique.
In-Motion Radiography
1. With in-motion radiography, the

movement of the test object and
the film is synchronized.
2. In many cases, motion picture
cameras are loaded with X-ray
films.
Conclusion
1. Congratulations on completing the

Level I and Level II courses in
radiographic testing.
Conclusion
2. For more detailed information, refer to
The Radiographic Testing Classroom
Training Book, which provides
background on critical practices for
implementation and control of applied
radiographic technology, as well as a
basic understanding of processes for
conducting uniform and repeatable
radiographic tests.

RT Level II 8-10

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Radiographic Testing

Compiled for ASNT by

1. A quality radiograph should have

2. This lesson presents information

3. With a basic knowledge and

4. Proper film processing is an

1. Selection of equipment for a

2. Before selecting radiographic

3. The test should be thoroughly

4. By knowledgeable choice of film,

5. The following are reasons for

c. Areas where X-rays cannot be

1. A radiation source, a test object

1. Diaphragms, collimators and cones

1. The role of a radiation filter is to

2. Filters accomplish two purposes:

3. Filters are made of sheets of metal

5. The material and thickness of the

a. Using lead filters, 3% of the

1. Screens are used in most

a. Fluorescent: Usually calcium

b. Lead: Lead screens produce

1. Fluorescent screens usually

3. The photographic action on the film

4. Because the emitted light is

5. To avoid a blurred image, a

6. Intensification factor of screens is

7. The only advantage of using

9. Practically, their use is limited to

10. Fluorescent screens cause

11. For higher-energy applications on

13. Touching of the sensitive

1. These screens are usually made

3. The front screen in most

4. Lead screens are particularly

5. The intensification factor of lead

6. They are used in almost all gamma

8. To ensure the intensification

9. The best results can be achieved

1. Masking is the practice of covering

2. Masking eliminates much of the

3. Commonly used masking

1. A standard image quality indicator

2. The purpose of using an IQI is

4. The hole type IQI (shown in the

5. Each hole type IQI is identified

7. In some standards, the selection of

9. Being able to see the outline of the

3. The thickness of shim stock must

4. The shim is placed underneath

1. Film holders are designed to

3. Film holders are flexible and

5. Cassettes are of use when

7. Other types of cassettes are

1. Location markers are lead

3. Chalk or paint sticks are commonly

5. Lead letters and numbers are

7. Using location marks and lead

8. For pipe varying in outside

9. For large test objects or large

10. For pipes, vessels, etc., that

11. An alternative to a universal