Fundamentals of Material

Balances
 Chemical Reaction Stoichiometry

 The occurrence of a chemical reaction in a process brings several

complications into the material balance procedures.

 The stoichiometric equation of the reaction imposes constraints on the

relative amounts of reactants and products in the input and output
streams

 Generation and/or consumption must be considered in the

calculations.

Stoichiometry - Theory of the proportions in which chemical species

combine with one another.
Stoichiometric Equation - Statement of the relative number of molecules or
moles of reactants and products that
Stoichiometry coefficients
participate in
the reaction.SO + O → SO
2 SO2 + O2 → 2 SO3 2 2 3
Not
2S→2S 1S → 1S
Balanced 4O → 3O Balanced
6O→6O
Chemical Reaction Stoichiometry (Cont.)

 Stoichiometry Ratio of two molecular species participating in a

reaction is the ratio of their stoichiometric coefficients in the
balanced reaction equation.

 This ratio can be used as a conversion factor to calculate the amount

of a particular reactant (or product) that was consumed (or produced),
given a quantity of another reactant or product that participated in the
in the reaction.
2 SO2 + O2 → 2 SO3

The stoichiometric ratio

2 mol SO3 generated 2 Ib-moles SO2 consumed
1 mol O2 consumed 2 Ib-moles SO3 generated
For the reaction,
2 SO2 + O2 → 2 SO3

If 1600 kg/h of SO3 is to be produced, what is the amount of oxygen

required?

Solution

1600 kg SO3 generated 1 kmol SO3 1 kmol O2 consumed kmol O2

=10
h 80 kg SO 3 2 kmol SO3 generated h

10 kmol O2 32 kg O2 Molar Mass of SO3

=320 kg O2/h Molar Mass of O2
h 1 kmol O2
 Limiting and Excess Reactants, Fractional
Conversion, and Extent of Reaction
 Two reactants (A and B) are said to be present in stoichiometric
proportion if the ratio (moles A present)/(moles B present)
equals the stoichiometric ratio obtained from the balanced
reaction equation. No of moles of an excess reactant, A
present in the feed
 Fractional Excess Stoichiometric requirement of A
(nA)feed – (nA)stoich
Fraction excess of A =
(nA)stoich
Limiting Reactant
Example C2H2 + 2H2 → C2H6
Excess Reactant

Flow rates of feed streams entering reactor: 20 kmol C2H2/h & 50 kmol
H2/h
Only 40 kmol H2/h is used.
(50.0 – 40.0) kmol/h
Fraction excess of H2 = = 0.25 or 25% excess H2
40.0 kmol/h
 Fractional Conversion of a reactant
Fraction Unreacted
f = Moles reacted
1-f
Moles fed

Example
100 moles of reactant enters a system and only 90 moles of reactant reacted.

90 moles
f = = 0.9
100 moles
20 mol/min of reactant enters a system and the percentage conversion 80%
f = 0.8 (20 mol/min)
= 16 mol/min

Amount of unreacted reactant = 0.2 (20)

= 4 mol/min
 Extent of reaction ξ

• Is a measure of how far a reaction has proceeded from its

initial state to some later point.
• Using the ξ makes it easy to keep track of the molar quantities
or flow rates of reactants and products in feed and outlet
stream.
• Ʋi = stoichiometric coefficient of the ith species in a chemical
reaction.
• It has units of moles of species i and is negative for reactants
and positive for products.
 , ʋA = -1 mol A, ʋB = -2 mol B, ʋC = 1 mol C

• Suppose start with nA0, nB0, and nC0 moles of A, B, and C and
at some time later there are nA, nB, and nC moles of the 3
species in the reactor.
• Thus, extent of reaction ξ (dimensionless)
• ξ starts at zero when the reaction commences, increase as
the reaction proceeds, and has the same value for all
species.

• Thus, if ni0 for all the species in a system and the value of the
ni for any one species are known, we can calculate ξ for that
species and then calculate the remaining ni values.
• N ammonia formation reaction.
• Feed consists of 100 mol/s N2, 300 mol/s H2 and 1 mol/s
of argon. The reactor outlet flow rate;
100 mol N2/s + (-1 mol N2/s) ξ
300 mol H2/s + (-3 mol H2/s) ξ
(2 mol NH3/s) ξ
1 mol Ar/s
ξ

• For a fraction conversion of H2 of 0.6, calculate the

outlet flow rate of H2, the extend of reaction and the
outlet flow rates of N2 and NH3.
 The oxidation of ethylene to produce ethylene oxide proceeds
according to the equation
C
The feed to the reactor contains 100 kmol C2H4 and 100 kmol O2.

1. Which reactant is limiting?

2. What is the percentage excess of the other reactant?
3. If the reaction proceeds to completion, how much of the excess
reactant will be left; how much C2H4O will be formed; and what is the
extent of reaction?
4. If the reaction proceed to a point where the fraction conversion of the
limiting reactant is 50%, how much of each reactant and product is
present at the end, and what is the extend of reaction?
5. If the reaction proceeds to a points where 60 kmol of O 2 is left, what is
the fraction conversion of C2H4? The fraction conversion of O2? The
extend of reaction?
 Chemical Equilibrium
 What will be the equilibrium composition of a reaction
mixture. Chemical equilibrium thermodynamics.

 How long will the system take to reach a specified state short
of equilibrium. Chemical kinetics.

Type of reactions:
(a) Irreversible reactions – The reaction only proceeds in a
single direction (from reactants to products) and the
concentration of the limiting reactant eventually approaches
zero.
(b) Reversible reactions – Reactants form products and
products undergo the reverse reactions to reform reactants.
𝐶 2 𝐻 4 + 𝐻 2 ❑ 𝐶 2 𝐻 2 𝑂𝐻
↔
 CO (g) + H2O (g)  CO2 + H2 (g)

The above reaction proceeds to equilibrium at a temperature T(K), the mole

fractions of the four reactive species satisfy the relation

where K(T) is the reaction equilibrium constant. At T = 1105 K, K = 1.00.

Suppose the feed to a reactor contains 1.00 mol of CO, 2.00 mol of H 2O
and no CO2 or H2, and the reaction mixture comes to equilibrium at 1105
K. Calculate the equilibrium composition and the fractional conversion of
the limiting reactant.

ξ
 CO (g) + H2O (g)  CO2 + H2 (g)
 Express all mole fraction in terms of a single variable
nCO = 1.00 mol - ξe
nH O = 2.00 mol - ξe ξ
2
nCO2 = ξe
n H2 = ξe
nTotal = 3.00 mol
From which 0.111
yCO = (1.00 mol – ξe )/3.00 mol 0.444
yH O = (2.00 mol – ξe)/3.00 mol 0.222
2
0.222
yCO2 = ξe /3.00 mol
yH 2
Substitution of= these
ξe /3.00 mol
expressions into the equilibrium relation (with K
= 1.00) yields yCO2 yH2 ξe
= = 1.00
yCO yH2O (1.00 mol – ξe)(2.00mol – ξe)

ξe = 0.667 mol
 Solution (Cont.)
 The limiting reactant is CO. At equilibrium
nCO = (1.00 – 0.667) mol
= 0.333 mol

 Fractional Conversion of CO, therefore

(1.00 – 0.333) mol CO reacted

fC0 = = 0.667
(1.00 mol CO fed)
 Multiple Reactions, Yield, and Selectivity
 In most chemical processes, reactants usually combine in more than
one way and the product once formed may react to yield something
less desirable.
 Ex/ ethylene C2H4 can be produced by the dehydration of ethane
C2H6. Once some hydrogen is produced, it can react with ethane to
produce methane CH4, moreover, ethylene can react with ethane to
form propylene C3H6 and methane:
C2H6 → C2H4 + H2
C2H6 + H2 → 2CH4
C2H6 + C2H4 → C3H6 + CH4
moles of desired product formed
 Yield = moles that would have been formed if there were no side
reactions and the limiting reactant had reacted completely

moles of desired product formed

 Selectivity = moles of undesired product formed
The concept of extent of reaction ξ can be extended to multiple
reactions:
ξ

C2H4 + ½ O2 → C2H4O
C2H4 + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 2H2O

(nC2H4)out = (nC2H4)0 – ξ1 – ξ2
(nO2)out = (nO2)0 – 0.5ξ1 – 3ξ2
(nC2H4O)out = (nC2H4O)0 + ξ1
(nCO2)out = (nCO2)0 + 2ξ2
(nH2O)out = (nH2O)0 + 2ξ2
The reactions
C2H6 → C 2H4 + H 2
C2H6 + H2 → 2CH4
take place in a continuous reactor at steady state. The feed contains
85.0 mole% ethane (C2H6) and the balance inerts (I). The fractional conversion
of ethane is 0.501, and the fractional yield of ethylene (C2H4) is 0.471. Calculate
the molar composition of the product gas and the selectivity of ethylene to
methane (CH4) production.
Basis:100 mol
Reactor
0.850 mol C2H6/mol n1 (mol C2H6)
0.150 mol I/mol n2 (mol C2H4)
n3 (mol H2)
n1 (mol C2H6) = 85.0 mol C2H6 – ξ1 – ξ2 n4 (mol CH4)
n2 (mol C2H4) = ξ1 n5 (mol I)
n3 (mol H2) = ξ1 – ξ2
n4 (mol CH4) = 2 ξ2
nI (mol I) = 15.0 mol I
Ethane Conversion: fraction conversion is 0.501, the fraction unconverted (leaving
the reactor) must be (1-0.501)

n1 =(1 – 0.501) mol C2H6 unreacted 85.0 mol C2H6 fed

mol C2H6 fed

= 42.4 mol C2H6 = 85.0 mol C2H6 – ξ1 – ξ2

85.0 mol C2H6 fed 1 mol C2H4

Ethylene Yield
Maximum possible ethylene formed = 1mol C2H6 =
85.0 mol

n2 = 0.471 (85.0 mol C2H4) = 40.0 mol C2H4 = ξ1

 Solution (Cont.)

Recall…
42.4 mol C2H6
n2 = 0.471 (85.0 mol C2H4) = 40.0 mol C2H4 = ξ1
n1 (mol C2H6) = 85.0 mol C2H6 – ξ1 – ξ2
ξ2 = 2.6 mol
37.4 mol H2
n3 = ξ1 – ξ2
5.2 mol CH4
n4 = 2 ξ2
nTotal = (42.4 + 40.0 + 37.4 + 5.2 + 15.0) mol = 140.0 mol

40.0 mol C2H4

• Selectivity 5.2= mol CH4 = 7.7 mol C2H4/mol CH4
 Consider the following pair of reactions:
()

Suppose 100 mol of A is fed to a batch reactor and the final

product contains 10 mol of A, 160 mol of B and 10 mol of C.
Calculate

1. The fractional conversion of A

2. The percentage yield of B
3. The selectivity of B relative to C
4. The extents of the first and second reactions
Balances on Molecular and Atomic Species

Balance on atomic species can be written input = output,

since atoms can neither be created nor destroyed in a
chemical reaction.

100 kmol C2H6/min 40 kmol H2/min

n1 (kmol C2H6/min)
n2 (kmol C2H4/min)
Molecular Balance
H2: generation = output = 40 kmol H2/min
C2H6: input = output + consumption
C2H4: generation = output
Atomic Balance
C: input =output

200 kmol C/min = 2 + 2

100 kmol C2H6/min 40 kmol H2/min
H: input = output n1 kmol C2H6/min
n2 kmol C2H4/min

600 kmol H/min = 80 kmol H/min + 6 + 4

 In general, systems that involve chemical reactions may be
analyzed using:
 Molecular species balances
 Atomic species balances
 Extents of reaction

To carry out degree of freedom analyses of reactive

systems you must first understand the concepts of
independent equations, independent species, and
independent chemical reactions.

Refer 4.7b for explanation on independent equations,

independent species, and independent chemical reactions.
• Independent equations: algebraic equations are
independent if you cannot obtain any one of them by
adding & subtracting multiples of any of the others. Ex/
x + 2y = 4 [1]
3x + 6y = 12 [2]
These eqs are not independent; because [2] = 3 x [1].
x + 2y = 4 [1]
2x – z = 2 [2]
4y = z = 6 [3]
Also not independent; because [3] = 2 x [1] – [2]
• If 2 molecular species (or atomic species) are in the same ratio to
each other wherever they appear in a process and this ratio is
incorporated in the flowchart labeling, balances on those species
will not be independent equations.
n1 (mol O2/s)
3.76 n1 (mol N2/s) n3 (mol O2/s)
3.76 n3 (mol N2/s)
n2 (mol CCl4/s)
N4 (mol CCl4/s)

• Since N2 & O2 are shown a being in the same ratio wherever they
appear, you cannot count them as 2 independent species. So, only
2 independent molecular species balance, one for either O 2 or N2
and one for CCl4.
• Similarly, atomic nitrogen (N) and atomic oxygen (O); and also
atomic chlorine and atomic carbon (4 mol Cl/1 mol C).
• Consequently, even though 4 atomic species are there, you may
count only 2 independent atomic species balances.
• Chemical reactions are independent if the stoichiometric
equation of any one of them cannot be obtained by adding
and subtracting multiples of the stoichiometric equations of
the others.

• These 3 reactions are not all independent.

• [3] = [1] + 2x [2]
• However, any 2 of the reactions are independent.
Molecular Species Balances

Balances on reactive species

The degree of freedom:
• No. unknown labeled variables
• + No. independent chemical reactions
• - No. independent molecular species balances
• - No. other equation relating unknown variables
• = No. degrees of freedom
 100 kmol C2H6/min 40 kmol H2/min
n1 (kmol C2H6/min)
n2 (kmol C2H4/min)

Dehydrogenation of ethane to ethylene

DOF analysis
• 2 unknown labeled variables
• + 1 independent chemical reactions
• - 3 independent molecular species balances
• - 0 other equation relating unknown variables
• = 0 degrees of freedom
Atomic Species Balances
All balances on atomic species take the form input – output.
The degree of freedom:
• No. unknown labeled variables
• - No. independent atomic species balances
• - No. independent molecular species balances
• - No. other equation relating unknown variables
• = No. degrees of freedom
In the ethane dehydrogenation process
• 2 unknown labeled variables
• - 2 independent atomic species balances (C & H)
• - 0 independent molecular species balances
• - 0 other equation relating unknown variables
• = 0 degrees of freedom
Extent of Reaction
Expression for each product species molar amount or flow rate in
terms of extents of reaction.
The degree of freedom:
• No. unknown labeled variables
• + No. independent reactions (1 unknown extent of
reaction for each)
• - No. independent reactive species
• - No. independent nonreactive species
• - No. other equation relating unknown variables
• = No. degrees of freedom
General guidelines
Atomic species balances generally lead to the most
straightforward solution procedure, especially when more
than one reaction is involved.
Extents of reaction are convenient for chemical equilibrium
problems and when equation solving software is to be used.
Molecular species balances require more complex
calculation than either of the other 2 approaches and should
be used only for simple systems involving one reaction.
 Methane is burned with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.
The feed to reactor contains:
(i) 20 mol% methane
(ii) 60 mol% oxygen
(iii) 20 mol% carbon dioxide
The conversion of the limiting reactant is 90%.
Calculate the molar composition of the product stream based on the:
(i) molecular species balance
(ii) atomic species balance
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2 H2O
(iii) Extents of reaction

Basis = 100 mole feed

100 mol nCH4 (mol CH4)
Process
0.2 mol CH4 nO2 (mol O2)
0.6 mol O2 nCO2 (mol CO2)
0.2 mol CO2
nH O (mol H2O)
2
 Excess reactant Limiting reactant
Solution
According to stoichiometry O2 : CH4 = 2:1
But in the feed stream O2 : CH4 = 3:1
The conversion of the CH4 is 90% and thus 10% CH4 is in the product
stream
nCH4, product = 0.1 (20 mol CH4 in Feed) = 2 mol CH4

Molecular Species Balance CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2 H2O

(a) CO2 Balance
input + generation =
output
0.2 mol CO2 1mol CO2produced
nCO2  100 mol   18 mol CH4reacted 
mol Feed 1mol CH4reacted

 38 mol CO2
(b) H2O Balance
generation = output
2 mol H2O produced
nH2O  18 mol CH4reacted 
1mol CH4reacted
 36 mol H2O

(c) O2 Balance
input = output + consumption
2 mol O2produced 0.6 mol O2
nO2  18 mol CH4reacted   100mol 
1mol CH4reacted mol

 60  36  24 mol O2
 Atomic Species Balance
(a) C Balance

1mol C 1mol C 1mol C 1mol C

20 mol CH4   20 mol CO2   2 mol CH4   nCO 2 mol CO2 
1mol CH4 1mol CO2 1mol CH4 1mol CO2

nCO 2  38 mol CO2

(b) H Balance

4 mol H 4 mol H 2 mol H

20 mol CH4   2 mol CH4   nH2O mol H2O 
1mol CH4 1mol CO2 1mol CH4

nH2O  36 mol H2O

 (c) O Balance
2 mol O 2mol O
60 mol O 2   20 mol CO2   2nCO 2 mol CO2  ( 2)38 mol CO2  36 mol H2O
1mol O 2 1mol CO2

nO 2  24 mol O 2

As conclusion, the molecular and atomic balances yield the SAME

results.

Try Example 4.7.1 Incomplete Combustion of Methane (pg. 124)

 Product Separation and Recycle
2 definitions of reactant conversion are used in the analysis of
chemical reactors with product separation and recycle of
unconsumed reactants:

reactant input to process  reactant output from process

Overall Conversion 
reactant input to process

reactant input to reactor  reactant output from reactor

Single  Pass Conversion 
reactant input to reactor
 Reaction: A B

75 mol A/min 100 mol A/min 25 mol A/min Product 75 mol B/min
Reactor Separation
75 mol B/min Unit

25 mol A/min

The overall conversion of A The single-pas conversion

75 molA/minin  0 mol/minout 100 mol A/minin  25 mol/minout

 100%  100%
75 molA/minin 100 mol/minin
= 100% = 75%
Propane is dehydrogenated to form propylene in a catalytic reactor

C3H8 C3H6 + H2

The process is to be design for a 95% overall conversion of propane. The

reaction products are separated into two streams: the first, which contains
H2, C3H6, and 0.555% of the propane that leaves the reactor, is taken off
as product; the second stream, which contains the balance of the
unreacted propane and 5% of the propylene in the first stream, is recycled
to the reactor. Calculate the composition of the product, the ratio (moles
recycled)/(mole fresh feed), and the single-pass conversion.
 95% Overall Propane Conversion 5% unconverted

n6 = 0.05 (100 mol) = 5 mol C3H8

Overall C Balance
(100 mol C3H8)(3 mol C/mol C3H8) = [n6(mol C3H8)](3 mol C/mol C3H8) +
[n7(mol C3H6)] (3 mol C/mol C3H6)
n7 = 95 mol C3H6

Overall H Balance
(100 mol)(8) = n6(8) + n7(6) + n8(2)
The product therefore contains
Therefore n8 = 95 mol H2
5 mol C3H8 2.6 mole% C3H8
95 mol C3H6 48.7 mole% C3H6
95 mol H2 48.7 mole% H2
 From the previous slide
n6 = 5 mol C3H8
n7 = 95 mol C3H6

Given Relations Among Separator Variables

n6 = 0.00555 n3 n3 = 900 mol C3H8
n10 = 0.0500 n7 n10 = 4.75 mol C3H6

Propane Balance About Separation Unit

n3 = n6 + n 9 n9 = 895 mol C3H8

Propane Balance About Mixing Point

100 mol + n9 = n1 n1 = 995 mol C3H8
 (n9 + n10) mol recycle
Recycle ratio = = 9.00 mol recycle/mol fresh feed
100 mol fresh feed
By substitute n9 = 895 mol
n10 = 4.75 mol
n1 – n3
Single-pass conversion = × 100% = 9.6%
n1
By substitute n1 = 995 mol
n3 = 900 mol
 Purging
 A problem may arise in processes that involve recycling.
 Suppose a material that enters with the fresh feed or is produced in a
reaction remains entirely in a recycle stream, rather than being carried
out in a process product.
 If nothing were done about this situation, the substance would
continuously enter the process and would have no way of leaving.
 To prevent this buildup, a portion of the recycle stream must be
withdrawn as a purge stream to rid the process of the substance in
question.
 Recycle Purge
50 mol C2H4/s
40 mol C2H4/s 10 mol C2H4/s
25 mol O2/s
20 mol O2/s 5 mol O2/s
565 mol N2/s
452 mol N2/s 113 mol N2/s

Reactor
Fresh Feed 100 mol C2H4/s Absorber
50 mol C2H4/s Solvent
60 mol C2H4/s 50 mol O2/s
30 mol O2/s 565 mol N2/s 25 mol O2/s
113 mol N2/s 565 mol N2/s
50 mol C2H4O/s Product
50 mol C2H4O/s
Solvent
Methanol is produced in the reaction of carbon dioxide and hydrogen
CO2 + 3H2 CH3OH + H2O
The fresh feed to the process contains hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and
0.400 mole% inerts (I). The reactor effluent passes to a condenser that
removes essentially all of the methanol and water formed and none of the
reactants or inerts.
The latter substances are recycled to the reactor. To avoid buildup of the
inerts in the system, a purge stream is withdrawn from the recycle.

The feed to the reactor contains 28.0 mole% CO2, 70.0 mole% H2, and
2.00 mole% inerts. The single-pass conversion of hydrogen is 60.0%.
Calculate the molar flowrates and molar compositions of the fresh feed,
the total feed to the reactor, the recycle stream and the purge stream for a
methanol production rate of 155 kmol CH3OH/h.
 Basis: 100 mol Combined Feed to the Reactor CO2 + 3H2 CH3OH + H2O

nr mol np mol
x5C CO2 x5C CO2 x5C CO2
x5H H2 n5 mol x 5H H2 x5H H2
(1 - x5C -x5H) I (1 – x5C -x5H) I (1 – x -x ) I
5C 5H

no (mol) 100 mol

Reactor Condenser
x0C CO2 0.700 H2 n1 (mol CO2)
(0.996 - x0C) H2 0.280 CO2 n2 (mol H2)
0.004 I 0.02 I 2.0 mol I n3 (mol CH3OH)
n3 (mol CH3OH) n4 (mol H2O)
n4 (mol H2O)
 CO2 + 3H2 CH3OH + H2O
60% Single-pass H2 Conversion
n2 = 0.40(70.0 mol H2 fed) = 28.0 mol H2

• H2 balance: consumption = input – output = (70.0 – 28.0) = 42.0 mol H 2

CO2 balance: output = input – consumption = 28.0– (42.0/3) = 14.0 mol

CO2

CH3OH balance: output = generation = 42.0 / 3 = 14.0 mol CH 3OH = n3

H2O balance: output = generation = 42.0 / 3 = 14.0 mol H 2O = n4

Condenser Analysis
Total mole balance : input = output
n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 + 2.0 mol = n3 + n4 + n5
n5 = 44.0 mol

CO2 balance : input = output

n =nx
H2 balance : input = output
n2 = n5 x5H
x5H = 0.6364 mol CO2/mol
x5I = 1 – x5C – x5H = 0.04545 mol I/mol

Fresh Feed Recycle Mixing Point

Total mole balance : input = output
n0 + nr = 100 mol

I balance : n0 (0.004) + nr (0.04545) = 2.0 mol I

Solving these two eq.
n0 = 61.4 mol fresh feed; nr = 38.6 mol recycle

CO2 balance : input = output

n0x0C + nrx5C = 28.0 mol CO2
x0C = 0.256 mol CO2/mol
x0H = (1 – x0C – x0I) = 0.740 mol H2/mol
Recycle Purge Splitting Point
Total Mole Balance : input = output
n5 = n r + n p
np = 5.4 mol purge

Flowchart Scaling
For assumed basis of 100 mol feed, the methanol production 14.0 mol
To scale the methanol production rate of 155 kmol/h

The mole fraction remain unchanged

 Combustion Reaction
 Combustion - the rapid reaction of a fuel with oxygen.
Example

C + O2 CO2 Complete combustion of carbon

C3H8 + 5 O2 3 CO2 + 4 H2O Complete combustion of propane
C3H8 + 7/2 O2 3 CO + 4 H2O Partial combustion of propane
CS2 + 3 O2 CO2 + 2 SO2 Complete combustion of carbon disulfide

The term composition on a wet basis is used to denote the component

mole fractions of a gas that contains water

Composition on a dry basis signifies the component mole fractions of

the same gas without water.

Ex. A gas contains 33.3 mole % CO2, 33.3 mole % N2 and 33.3 mole %
H2O (wet basis); contains 50 % CO2 and 50% N2 on a dry basis.

The product gas that leaves a combustion furnace is referred to as the

stack gas or flue gas.
A stack gas contains 60.0 mole% N2, 15.0% CO2, 10.0% O2 and the balance
H2O. Calculate the molar composition of the gas on a dry basis

Basis: 100 mol Wet Gas

60.0 mol N2
15.0 mol CO2
10.0 mol O2
85 mol dry gas
The composition
60 mol N 2
 0.706
85 mol dry gas
15 mol CO 2
 0.176
85 mol dry gas
10 mol O 2
 0.118
85 mol dry gas
An Orsat analysis (a technique for stack analysis) yields the following dry
basis composition:
N2 65% CO2 14%
CO 11% O2 10%
A humidity measurement shows that the mole fraction of H2O in the stack gas
is 0.0700. Calculate the stack gas composition on a wet basis.
Basis: 100 Ib-moles Dry Gas
lb  mol H 2 O lb  mol dry gas
0.07  0.93
lb  mol wet gas lb  mol wet gas

0.07 lb  mol H 2 O/lb  mol wet gas lb  mol H 2 O

 0.073
0.93 lb  mol dry gas/lb  mol wet gas lb  mol dry gas

Hence the gas in the assumed basis contains

0.073 lb  mol H 2 O
100 lb  mol dry gas   7.53 lb  mol H 2 O
lb  mol dry gas
 0.650 lb  mol N 2
100 lb  mol dry gas   65.0 lb  mol N 2
lb  mol dry gas
(100)(0.140)  14 lb  mol CO 2

(100)(0.11 0)  11 lb  mol CO
(100)(0.100)  10 lb  mol O 2
Total  7.53  65  14  11  10  107.53 lb  mol wet gas

Mole Fractions of Each Stack Gas Component

7.53 lb  mol H 2O
yH 2 O   0.07
107.53 lb  mol wet gas

65 lb  mol N 2
yN 2   0.604
107.53 lb  mol wet gas
 14 lb  mol CO2
yCO2   0.13
107.53 lb  mol wet gas

11 lb  mol CO
yCO   0.102
107.53 lb  mol wet gas

10 lb  mol O2
yO 2   0.93
107.53 lb  mol wet gas
 Theoretical and Excess Air
• Theoretical Oxygen - The moles or molar flow rate of oxygen need
for complete combustion of all the fuel fed to reactor. assuming
that all carbon is oxidized to CO2, hydrogen to H2O, all sulfur to
SO2.

• Theoretical Air - The quantity of air that contains the theoretical

oxygen.
• Excess Air - The amount by which the air fed to the reactor
exceeds the theoretical air.
• Percent Excess Air
(moles air)fed – (moles air)theoretical
×100%
(moles air)theoretical
100 mol/h of butane and 5000 mol/h of air are fed into a combustion reactor.
Calculate the percent excess air.

C4H10 + 13/2 O2 4 CO2 + 5 H2O

6.5 mol O 2required

O 2 theory  100 mol C 4 H10 /h   650 mol O 2 /h
mol C 4 H10

air in  650 mol O 2 /h  4.76 mol air  3094 mol air/h
mol O 2

[air] in  [air] theory

% excess air   100%
[air] theory

5000  3094
  100%  61.6%
3094