3.4.

Cellular Respiration
Outlines
oCellular respiration
oCoupled Reactions
oThe site of cellular respiration
oStages of cellular respiration
oEnergy from non carbohydrate sources
oCellular respiration

*It is the process by which cells produce energy

from glucose and other organic molecules in the
form of energy storing compound called ATP.

*The energy released by cellular respiration is

temporarily captured by the formation of ATP
within the cell

*ATP is referred to as energy currency of cells

•ATP is a nucleotide consisting of an
adenine base attached to a ribose sugar
which is attached to three phosphate
groups .

•These three phosphate groups are linked

to one another by two high-energy bonds
called phosphoanhydride.
Adenosine triphophate.
Hydrolysis of ATP
•When one of the phosphoanhydride bond is
broken in a hydrolysis rxn, energy is
released.
•ATP+ H2O ⇋ ADP+Pi+energy

The hydrolysis of ATP →ADP →AMP is

reversible.
regenerates ATP from ADP and P
  Coupled Reactions
•A coupled reaction is carried out when
two reactions occur nearly simultaneously.

• The first reaction must be exothermic and

that gives off energy.

•The second reaction is endothermic, which

immediately uses the energy produced
from the first reaction.
•An e.g of coupled rxn
1. Is the hydrolysis of ATP and the contraction of
muscle tissue.
 Two proteins, actin and myosin, form a loose
complex called actomyosin.
 When ATP is added to isolated actomyosin, the
protein fibers contract.
 The hydrolysis of ATP releases energy which is
used by muscles to contract. The coupled
reaction is:
A. ATP + H2O ---------ADP + P + energy
B. Relaxed muscle + energy-----contracted muscle
2. The hydrolysis of creatine phosphate to
release energy which in turn is used for the
formation of more ATP.
3.4.1. The site of cellular respiration

•Cellular respiration is carried out by both

prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

•In prokaryotic cells, it is carried out in the

cell cytoplasm, and cell membrane

•Whereas in eukaryotic cells it begins in the

cytosol then is carried out in the
mitochondria.
3.4.2. Stages of respiration.

Cellular respiration consists of a sequence

of many chemical rxns that vary during
aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

Aerobic respiration is divided into 3 main

stages: Glycolysis
Citric acid cycle, and
Electron transport chain
Stage I. Glycolysis
Called Embden-Meyerhoff
pathway
It occurs in the cytosol of the cell
in anaerobic condition.

 It is the common pathway of both

aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

 Glycolysis begins cellular

respiration by breaking glucose into
two molecules of a three-carbon
compound called pyruvate
 The 3 stages of Glycolysis
i. The investment stage.

 2 ATP molecules are hydrolyzed, and the

phosphates from those ATP molecules are
attached to glucose, which is converted to
fructose-1,6- bisphosphate

 The energy investment phase raises the free

energy of glucose, thereby allowing later
reactions to be exergonic.
2. The cleavage phase
• breaks the six-carbon molecule into two
molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
3. The energy liberation phase (Harvesting stage)
 Produces four ATP, two NADH, and two
molecules of pyruvate.

Because two molecules of ATP are used in the

energy investment phase, the net yield is two
molecules of ATP.
Glycolysis: Energy balance sheet
• Hexokinase: - 1 ATP
• Phosphofructokinase: -1 ATP
• GAPDH: +2 NADH
• Phosphoglycerate kinase: +2 ATP
• Pyruvate kinase: +2 ATP
Total/from a molecule of glucose: +2 ATP, +2
NADH, 2Pyruvate
Stage II: Pyruvate oxidation (link reaction)

Is a transition reaction

Pyruvate converted into Acetyl CoA which
enter Krebs cycle.
It takes place in matrix oc mitochondoria
The Processes of link rxns
Step 1. A carboxyl group is removed from
pyruvate, releasing a molecule of carbon dioxide
into the surrounding medium.

Step 2. The hydroxyethyl group is oxidized to an

acetyl group, and the electrons are picked up by
NAD+, forming NADH.

Step 3. The enzyme-bound acetyl group is

transferred to CoA, producing a molecule of
acetyl CoA.
•Coenzyme A is derived from a pantothenic acid needed
for respiration
The overall reaction:
2pyruvate + 2NAD+ + 2 CoA --> 2 acetyl-
CoA + 2NADH + 2H+ + 2CO2.

The Acetyl-coA molecules enter the Kreb

cycle
NADH goes to the electron transport chain
to produce ATP.

Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the cell as a

waste product.
The protons (2H+) stay in the matrix.
Stage 3: Krebs cycle /citric acid
/tricarboxylic acid cycle /

• It takes place in matrix of mitochondria

• It begins when acetyl-CoA combines with a
four-carbon molecule called oxaloacetate &
produces citric acid which has six carbon atoms.

• This is why the Krebs cycle is also called the

citric acid cycle.
 Inner membrane

Outer
membrane

Cristae
Matrix
Inter membrane
space
Structure of mitochondria
An electron-micrograph of a mitochondrion
•After citric acid forms, it goes through a
series of reactions that release energy.

•The energy is captured in molecules of

NADH, ATP, and FADH2, another energy
carrying compound.

•Carbon dioxide is also released as product

of these reactions.
• The final step of the Krebs cycle regenerates
OAA, the molecule that began the Krebs cycle.

• This molecule is needed for the next turn

through the cycle.

• Two turns are needed because glycolysis

produces two pyruvate molecules from a single
glucose molecule
Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
Stage IV: Oxidative phosphorylation
It is the process in which ATP is formed as
a result of the transfer of electrons from
NADH or FADH2 to o2by a series of electron
carriers.
It takes place in cristae of mitochondoria

Oxidative phosphorylation generates 90%

of molecules of ATP that are formed when
glucose is completely oxidized to CO2 and
H2O
The 3 major steps in oxidative phosphorylation

a. oxidation-reduction rxns :
Involving electron transfers between
specialized proteins embedded in the inner
mitochondrial membrane
B. The generation of a proton (H+) gradient
across the inner mitochondrial membrane
(which occurs simultaneously with step (a)

C. The synthesis of ATP using energy from the

spontaneous diffusion of electrons down the
proton gradient generated in step( b).
The NADH and FADH2, formed during
glycolysis, the link reaction, and the TCA cycle,
release their electrons to ETC and finally reduce
molecular O2 to H2O.

Electron transfer occurs through a series of

protein electron carriers, the final acceptor
being O2 and the pathway is called the electron
transport chain (ETC).
Energy is released as they pass from one carrier
to the next & used to phosphorylate ADP.
There are 3 sites of the chain that can give enough
energy for ATP synthase.
These sites are:

Site I between FMN and Coenzyme Q at enzyme

complex I.
Site II between cyt b and cyt C1 at enzyme
complex III
Site III between cyt a and cyt a3 at enzyme
complex IV
 e-
cyt b H+
Q
e- cyt a
e-
e- e-
FMN succinylDH cyt a3
cyt-c1
e- H+ H+
H+ H+
H+
Cytocrome b-C1 Cytocrome
NAD
complex oxidase
dehydrogenase
complex

Electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation

• Mechanism ATP synthesis
The transfer of electrons through the
electron transport chain causes protons to
be pumped from the mitochondrial matrix
to the intermembrane space.

Resulting in an electrochemical potential

difference across the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
The electrical potential difference is due to
the accumulation of Proton outside the
membrane, whereas the chemical potential
difference is due to the difference in pH when it
is more acidic outside the membrane

This electrochemical potential difference

drives (forces) ATP synthase to generate ATP
from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
 How many ATP molecule produced from
1NADH?
Q: How many ATP molecule produced
from 1FADH2?

Answer
1NADH = 3ATP
1FADH2 = 2ATP
Why?
 Summary of stages of cellular respiration

The summary equation for aerobic respiration is:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 ➞ 6H2O + 6CO2 + 36ATP
Substrate-level and Oxidative
phosphorylation.
A. Substrate-level phosphorylation
During phosphate is transferred to ADP from a
high energy phosphorylated organic compound.
• A couple of the enzymes in the glycolysis and
citric acid cycle make ATP through substrate-level
phosphorylation.
• However, only a small amount of ATP is made
produced by this mechanism.
B. Oxidative phosphorylation
• A proton motive force across a membrane
provides the energy for ATP synthethase to
make ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
• The proton-motive force is created by a large
(1000-fold) difference in proton concentrations
across a membrane.

• However, for prokaryotes, proton gradient (pH

gradient) is maintained across their plasma
membranes.
• In Prokaryotes, net production of 38 ATP and a
eukaryotic cell only 36 ATP. Why?
In prokaryotes, there are no mitochondria, the
whole process of respiration occurs within the
cytoplasm
so no ATP is consumed in transporting across the
organelle.
In prokaryotes and eukaryotes, some of the NADH
is generated by the cytosolic glycolysis.
Thus oxidation occurs in plasma membranes in
Prokaryotes, and in the inner mitochondrial
membrane in eukaryotes.
Energy from non-carbohydrate sources
• We obtain most of our energy in the form of fats,
proteins, sucrose and other disaccharides, and
starch, a polysaccharide.
• All these organic molecules in food can be used
by cellular respiration to make ATP
• Similarly, glycogen, can be hydrolyzed to glucose
as fuel for respiration.
• Proteins can also be used for fuel,

• Amino acids present in excess are converted by

enzymes to intermediates of glycolysis and the
citric acid cycle.

• Before amino acids can feed into glycolysis or

the citric acid cycle, their amino groups must be
removed, a process called deamination.
• Catabolism can also harvest energy stored in fats
• After fats are digested to glycerol and fatty acids,
• the glycerol is converted to glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate, an intermediate of glycolysis.
• Most of the energy of a fat is stored in the fatty
acids.
• A metabolic sequence called beta oxidation
breaks the fatty acids down to two-carbon
fragments, which enter the citric acid cycle as
acetyl CoA.
• NADH and FADH2 are also generated during beta
oxidation;
 they can enter the electron transport chain,
leading to further ATP production.
• Fats make excellent fuels, in large part due to
their chemical structure and the high energy
level of their electrons (equally shared between
carbon and hydrogen) compared to those of
carbohydrates.
• A gram of fat oxidized by respiration produces
more than twice as much ATP as a gram of
carbohydrate. Why?
• Fats have high proportion of C-H bonds which
store the chemical potential energy

• Carbohydrates on the other hand, have high

ratio of C-O bonds because of glycosidic
linkages so they do not store as much energy in
their bonds.
Catabolism of various molecules from food
Fermentation
What happens in the anaerobic pathway?
•In the process of glycolysis, a net profit of 2 ATP ,
reduced NAD and 2pyruvates are produced.

•When oxygen is not present, pyruvate will undergo

a process called fermentation. In the process of
fermentation, the reduced NAD from glycolysis will
be recycled back to NAD+ so that glycolysis can
continue .
Fermentation does not require oxygen and
is therefore it will replenish NAD+ from the
Reduced NAD produced in glycolysis.

 Types Of Fermentation
I. Alcoholic Fermentation
oIn alcoholic fermentation pyruvate is
decarboxylated (CO2 leaves) to form
acetaldehyde.
o Hydrogen atoms from reduced NAD are
then used to help convert acetaldehyde to
ethanol where NAD+ results.
•Facultative anaerobes are organisms that
can undergo fermentation when they are
deprived of oxygen.

•Yeast is an example of facultative

anaerobe that will undergo alcohol
fermentation.
ii. Lactic Acid Fermentation

•Is the process by which pyruvate molecules are

converted to lactic acid in the muscle cells of
humans, and also in the cells of bacteria.

•The pyruvate molecules from glycolysis are used

to oxidize NADH and convert it back to NAD+
• During the process, lactic acid or lactate is
produced as a byproduct.
•Most animals use the process to regenerate
NAD+ in the absence of oxygen.

•Anaerobic respiration doesn’t produce enough

ATP to power the entire organism, but can be used
to supplement the ATP levels in tissues (like
muscle) where oxygen levels may drop quickly.

•The products of bacterial lactic acid fermentation

have been used to produce food products such as
yogurt, sour cream, and buttermilk