Reservoir Charact erist ics,

Rock & Fluid Properties

and Drive
Mechanism
 Reservoir Characteristics
• To ensure the best possible return, it is
important to understand as much as possible about
• the reservoir.
This always presents a conceptual problem as we cannot
• physically see the reservoir in question.
Techniques, such as; Seismic Data Acquisition, Electric Line
Logging, valuable
produce Core Analysis,
data PVT Analysis,
which and Well
help build Testing etc
the simulated
reservoir model and thus help in developing the most cost
effective strategy to manage the asset.
 ROCKS CLASSIFICATION

IGNEOU SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC

S
Rock-forming Source of

Rocks under high

material

Molten materials in Weathering and

temperatures
deep crust and erosion of rocks
and pressures in
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust

Recrystallization due to
process

Crystallization Sedimentation, burial

heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids
 Rock Properties
To form a commercial reservoir of hydrocarbons, a geological
formation must possess three essential characteristics;
• Sufficient void space to contain hydrocarbons (porosity).
•Adequate connectivity of these pore spaces to
allow transportation over large distances (permeability).
•A capacity to trap sufficient quantities of hydrocarbon
to prevent upward migration from the source beds.
 Porosity
The void spaces in the reservoir rocks are the inter granular
spaces between the sedimentary particles. Porosity is defined
as a percentage or fraction of void to the bulk volume of the
rock.

Porosity = 48%
 Porosity
Measurements of porosity are either done in the laboratory on
core samples whereby actual conditions are simulated as
closely as possible prior to measurement, or in-situ via suites of
electric logs such as Neutron, Density and Sonic Logs.
 Permeability
Permeability is a measure of the ease with which fluid flows
through a porous rock, and is a function of the degree of
interconnection between the pores.

A & B have
same porosity
 Permeability
Permeability is measured in darcy units or more
commonly millidarcy (md - one thousandth of a darcy) after
Henry Darcy who carried out some pioneering work on water
flow through unconsolidated sand stones.
A practical definition of a darcy is as follows;
A rock has a permeability (k) of 1 Darcy if a pressure gradient of
1 atm/cm induces a flow rate of 1 cc/sec/cm2 of cross sectional
area with a liquid viscosity 1 cp
 Permeability
The grain size has a negligible effect on the porosity of a rock,
but this has a predominant effect on permeability.
More frictional forces are encountered while passing the same
fluid through a fine granular pack than through a coarse
granular pack of equal porosity.
 Permeability
The apparent permeability is dependent on the type of fluid
flowing through the rock and this plays an important part in the
interpretation of different hydrocarbon bearing reservoirs.
Permeability is denoted in three different ways.
1.Absolute permeability ka is derived in the laboratory by
flowing a known quantity of fluid through a core while its pore
spaces are 100% saturated with the same fluid. Absolute
permeability will not change with varying fluids as long as the
pore space configuration remains constant.
2.Effective permeability is the permeability of a flowing phase
which does not saturate 100% of the rock. The effective
permeability is always less than the absolute value of k for the
rock.
3.Relative permeability is a dimensionless number which is the
ratio of effective permeability (to a fluid) to absolute
permeability of the same rock.
 Wetting
The adhesive force determines which fluid will preferentially
wet a solid.
As an example, water will spread out on the surface of a sheet
of glass whereas mercury will bead up and not adhere to the
glass.
For water the adhesive forces between liquid and solid are
greater than the cohesive forces holding the liquid molecules
together, the opposite is true for the mercury.
The tendency of one fluid to displace another from a solid
surface is determined by the relative wettability of the fluids to
the solid.
 Capillarity

When liquid wets the surface of a fine bore glass capillary tube,
surface tension around the circumference of the contact pulls
the liquid interface up the tube until an equilibrium is reached
with the downward force due to the liquid column height.

In the reservoir, although the pore spaces do not form the

uniform capillary tubes, they do interconnect to form a complex
capillary systems which in turn gives rise to capillary forces.

These forces can be measured under laboratory conditions for a

given rock – fluid(s) system and, in turn, the capillary height can
be calculated if the density difference of the fluid system is
known.
 Irreducible Water Saturation
The minimum saturation that can be induced by displacement is
one in which the wetting phase becomes discontinuous.
Since the wetting phase will become discontinuous at some
finite capillary pressure there will always be some irreducible
water saturation, a saturation which cannot be reduced by
displacement by a non-wetting phase no matter how great a
pressure is applied to the system.
 Residual Oil (Water Displacement)

Water tends to displace oil in a piston like fashion, moving first

close to the rock surface where it is aided by capillary forces in
squeezing oil from the smaller channels.
Residual oil is left in the smaller channels when interfacial
tension causes the thread of oil to break leaving behind small
globules of oil.
Relations between Permeability and Fluid
Saturation

The effective permeability of a fluid is a of

function saturation. the
 Coring
One way to get more detailed samples of
a formation is by coring, where
formation sample is drilled out by means
of special bit.

This sample can provide:

▪ Detailed lithological decscription.
▪Porosity, permeability, fluid
saturation and grain density.

▪These parameters are measured in

the laboratory and serve as a basis for
calibrating the response of the porosity
logging tools and to establish a
porosity/permeability relationship.
CORING ASSEMBLY AND CORE BIT

Drill collar

connection
PDC Cutters
Thrust bearing

Outer barrel
Inner
Fluid
barrel
Core retaining vent
ring
Core bit
COMING OUT OF HOLE WITH CORE BARREL
 Core Analysis

Core analysis can be divided into

two categories:
▪ Conventional Core Analysis.
▪ Special Core Analysis.
Conventional Core Analysis.
• The core is usually slabbed, cut
lengthwise to make the structure
visible.
•
Provides information on lithology, residual
fluid saturation, ambient porosity, ambient
gas permeability and grain density.
Core Analysis

Gas Permeameter

Liquid Permeameter
Core Analysis

Porosimeter
 Core Analysis
Special Core Analysis :
Provides the following information:
▪ Porosity and permeability at elevated
confining stress.
▪ Electrical properties such as formation factor
and resistivity index.
▪ Capillary pressure.
▪ Wettability and relative permeability.
▪ Mechanical rock properties such as
compressibility.
▪ Water flood sensitivity for injectivity and well
performance.
Fluid Properties
 Fluid Properties
Naturally occurring petroleum accumulations are made up of
large number of organic compounds, primarily hydrocarbons.
Seldom are two crude oil samples identical and seldom are two
crude oils made up of the same proportions of the various
compounds.
Reasons to examine the Reservoir fluids
a)A chemical engineer may be interested in a crude oil’s
composition as to the amount of commercial products the oil
will yield after refining.
b)An exploration might have an interest in an oil or water’s
composition as it sheds light on the origin, maturation and
degradation of the oil for geological interpretation.
c)The petroleum engineer is particularly concerned to
determine their behavior under varying conditions of pressure
and temperature that occur in the reservoir and piping systems
during the production process.
Products from Petroleum
□ The distillation of crude oil results in various
fractions which boils at different temperatures
□ If the residue which remains after distillation is a wax like
solid consisting of largely of paraffin hydrocarbons
the
□ crude is designated as paraffin base
If the residue is a black pitch like solid the crude is called
asphalt base
Various fractions of petroleum
Fractions obtained from distillation Temperature Range
Petroleum Ether Upto 160 0f
Gasoline 160-400 0f

Kerosene 400-575 0f
Fuel oil Above 575 0f
Requirements to Study the Reservoir Fluid Behavior

Reservoir fluids are generally complex mixtures of

hydrocarbons existing as liquid-gas systems under
high pressures & temperatures

An important aspect of petroleum engineering is

predicting the future behavior of a petroleum reservoir
when it is put on production

Therefore, it is know the behavior

reservoir necessary tofunctionof of temperature and
pressure fluids as a

To understand the behavior of complex systems

existing in petroleum reservoir, the derivations from
ideal behavior are used.
Phase Behavior of Hydrocarbon Systems

A phase is a definite portion of a system which is homogeneous

throughout and can be separated from other phases by distinct
boundaries.
Solids, liquids and gases are phases of matter which can occur,
depending on pressure and temperature. Commonly, two or
three different fluid phases exist together in a reservoir.
Any analysis of reservoir fluids depends on the relationships
between pressure, volume and temperature of the fluids
commonly referred to as the PVT relationship.
It is customary to represent the phase behaviour of
hydrocarbon reservoir fluids on the P-T plane showing the limits
over which the fluid exists as a single phase and the proportions
of oil and gas in equilibrium over the two phase P-T range.
Single Component Systems

Single component hydrocarbons are not found in nature,

however it is beneficial to observe the behaviour of a pure
hydrocarbon under varying pressures and temperatures to gain
insight into more complex systems.
As an example, the PVT cell is charged with ethane at 60° F and
1000 psia. Under these conditions, ethane is in a liquid state. If
the cell volume is increased while holding the temperature
constant, the pressure will fall rapidly and first bubble of gas
appears. This is called the bubble point.
Further increases of cylinder volume at constant temperature
does not reduce the pressure. The gas volume increases until
the point is reached where all the liquid is vaporized. This is
called the dew point.
Further increase of cylinder volume results in a hyperbolic
reduction in pressure as the ethane gas expands.
Single Component P-V
Phase Behaviour of a Multi-Component System
Consider the phase behavior of a 50:50 mixture of two pure
hydrocarbon components on the P-T plane.

The vapor pressure and bubble point lines do not coincide but
form an envelope enclosing a broad range of temperatures and
pressures at which two phases (gas and oil) exist in equilibrium.

The dew and bubble point curves terminate at that

temperature and pressure at which liquid and vapour (gas)
phases have identical intensive properties, density, specific
volume, Etc.
Phase Behaviour of a Multi-Component System
 Reservoir Fluid Types

• Black oil

• Volatile oil

• Retrograde Condensate Pres , Tres

Dry
(gas condensate)

Pressure
Gas
Gas
• Wet gas Condensate

Volatile Black
• Dry gas Oil Oil

Temperature
P-T Diagram for a Black Oil
P-T Diagram for a Volatile Oil
P-T Diagram for gas condensate
P-Tdiagram for a wet Gas
P-T Diagram for a Dry Gas
Reservoir Fluid Properties

• Oil Compressibility
• Saturation Pressure
• Live Oil Viscosity
• Live Oil Density
• Oil Formation Volume Factor
• Gas-Oil Ratio
• Liberated Gas Formation Volume factor
• Incremental Liberated Gas-Gravity
• Cumulative liberated Gas-Gravity
Sampling of Reservoir Fluids
• The purpose of sampling is to obtain a representative
sample of reservoir fluid identical to the initial reservoir
fluid.

• For this reason, sampling operations should ideally be

conducted on virgin reservoirs (having not yet produced) or
in new wells completed in no depleted zones, containing
fluids identical to the initial reservoir fluids.

• If the production fluids are still identical to the initial fluids,

the sampling procedure will be very similar to that of new
wells.

• If the produced fluid is not identical to the fluid initially in

place in the reservoir, one cannot hope to obtain
representative samples.
Well Conditioning for Sampling
The objective of well conditioning is to replace the non-
representative reservoir fluid located around the wellbore
with original reservoir fluid by displacing it into and up the
wellbore.

A flowing oil well is conditioned by producing it at

successively lower rates until the non representative oil has
been produced.

The well is considered to be conditioned when further

reductions in flow rate have no effect on the stabilized gas-oil
ratio.
Stable well conditions: Pressure, Rate, GOR, WGR,
Temperature
Types of Sampling

Downhole

DST strings
Wireline sample

Surface

Wellhead samples
Separator
samples
Sub-surface sampling for Oil Reservoirs

Subsurface samples are generally taken with the well shut-in.

The sample should be taken under single-phase conditions,
Pres > Pb

The well should be fully cleaned up

A static pressure gradient survey should be performed either
prior to or during sampling to check for the presence of water
at the bottom of the well
Sub-surface sampling for Oil Reservoirs
Sub-surface Sampler
Sample
transfer unit
Surface sampling for Oil/gas Reservoirs

Sampling at the wellhead

Valid fluid samples are only likely to be obtained if the
fluid is single-phase at the wellhead
Poses safety hazards (high-pressure fluid...)
Sampling at the separator
Easier, safer, cheaper
Only reliable surface method if fluid is two-phase at
the wellhead
Wellhead sampling

Sample point should be as near wellhead as possible, and

upstream of choke manifold
It is possible to obtain mono phasic wellhead samples for
very high pressure gas condensates
Pres = 15,000 psia
Pwh = 11,000

psia
Pdew = 5500 psia

But beware of
flashing
occurring at
sample point
Separator sampling

The most important factor in separator sampling is

stability of conditions
Stabilised gas and oil flow rates (and therefore GOR)
Stabilised temperature
Stabilised wellhead pressure
Gas and liquid samples should be taken simultaneously,
as they are a matched pair
Oil and gas rates must be measured carefully
Sample points must be as close to the separator
as possible
 Horizontal Separator

momentum Gauge
absorber
Inlet Gas
Outlet

Sight Liquid

Glass Outlet
Sample Transfer

Single-phase sub-surface samples become two-phase as

they are brought to surface as a result of a large reduction
in pressure due to cooling
The sample chamber must be re-pressured to single-
phase conditions prior to transfer to sample bottles
Single-phase positive displacement samplers are now
common place, and maintain single-phase conditions in
the chamber as it is brought to surface
Gas-Condensate Sampling

Sub-surface sampling is generally not the preferred method

in condensate reservoirs
Well-head sampling preferred if single-phase
Separator sampling preferred for other
cases
If Pwf < Pdew, the choice of flow-rate during sampling is
• Highbetween
a balance rates cause excessive liquid drop-out in
the following:
the reservoir
•Low rates prevent liquids formed in the wellbore from being
produced to surface
Recombination of surface Sample

Separator samples are recombined using the ratio calculated

from measured gas and liquid flow-rates
Care must also be taken to preserve consistency between
field and laboratory values of separator liquid shrinkage
In what ratio should the oil and gas samples be recombined?
The PVT Cell

Used for examining the behaviour of fluids at

reservoir pressures and temperatures
Temperature thermostatically controlled
The volume of the cell can be changed by using a positive
displacement pump
Sampling points are provided
Most cells are fitted with an observation window
Basic PVT Experiments

□ Constant Composition Expansion (CCE)

□ Constant Volume Depletion (CVD)

□ Differential Vaporisation (Liberation) (DV)

□ Multi-stage Separator Tests

 Bubble-Point Determination

□ Bubble-point identified by change in fluid

compressibility

Black Volatile
Oil Oil

Volume
Volume

Pb Pressure Pb Pressure
 Isothermal Flash
□ The Isothermal Flash is the basis for most
laboratory PVT experiments

□ Single-phase fluid is loaded into the PVT cell at

temperature T and pressure P1

□ The temperature is kept constant throughout

the experiment (PVT cell is placed in a heat
bath)

□ The fluid is expanded to a new pressure P2

(P2<P1)

□ The flash results in a change in total

volume
and may result in phase changes
 Constant Composition Expansion (CCE)
□ A series of isothermal flash expansions at
constant temperature (normally Tres).
No fluid is removed from the cell

Vapour

Vapour

Volume Single Liquid

Single Liquid
@ Psat Phase
Phase

P > Psat P = Psat P < Psat P <<

Psat
 Constant Volume Depletion (CVD)

□ A series of flash expansions at T

□ At each pressure, vapour is withdrawn to
restore original cell volume at Psat

Vapour
Vapour

Vapour Vapour
Vapour
Vapour Vapour

Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid

P1 P1 P2 P2
Psat
 Differential Vaporisation (DV)
□ A series of flash expansions at T
□ At each pressure stage, all of the vapour
in the cell is removed

Vapour
Vapour
Vapour Vapour

Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid

P1 P1 P2 P2
Psat
The liquid remaining at the last pressure step is cooled to ambient
temperature to give the residual oil
 DV Reported Data
□ Oil volume
□ Oil density
□ Oil formation volume factor, Bo
□ Gas specific gravity
□ Gas Z-factor
□ Gas formation volume factor, Bg
□ Evolved gas volumes
□ Solution GOR, Rs
Drive
mechanism
Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

What causes oil to flow from reservoirs?

Pressure difference between reservoir fluids and the
wellbore pressure
If reservoir pressure declines quickly, recovery by
natural flow will be small
There are several ways in which oil can be displaced
and produced from a reservoir, and these may be
termed mechanisms or “drives”.
Where one replacement mechanism is dominant, the
reservoir may be said to be operating under a
particular “drive.”
Reservoir Drive Mechanisms
• For the proper understanding of reservoir behavior
and predicting future performance, it is necessary to
have knowledge of the driving mechanism that
controls the behavior of fluids within reservoirs.

• Overall performance of the oil reservoir is largely

determined by the nature of the energy ( driving
mechanism) available for moving the oil to the
wellbore

Where does this energy come from???

Reservoir Drive Mechanisms
Possible sources of replacement for produced fluids are:
a)Expansion of under saturated oil above the bubble
point.
b) Expansion of rock and of connate water.
c)Expansion of gas released from solution in the oil
below the bubble point.
d)Invasion of the original oil bearing reservoir by the
expansion of the gas from a free gas cap.
e)Invasion of the original oil bearing reservoir by the
expansion of the water from an adjacent or underlying
aquifer.
Understanding the Reservoir Drive Mechanism
The recovery of oil by any of the natural drive
mechanisms is called primary recovery. During primary
recovery, hydrocarbons are produced from reservoir
without the use of any process (such as fluid injection)
to supplement the natural energy of the reservoir.

Each drive mechanism has certain typical performance

in terms of:

Pressure-decline rate
Gas-oil ratio
Water production
Ultimate recovery factor
SOURCES OF RESERVOIR ENERGY

❖ GAS DISSOLVED IN OIL

❖ OIL OVERLAIN BY FREE GAS

❖ OIL UNDERLAIN BY COMPRESSED WATER

❖ GRAVITY FORCE, &

❖ COMBINATION OF THE ABOVE

RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISM- Types

In oil reservoirs, there are basically six drive

mechanismsthat provide the natural
energy
necessary for recovery:

• Depletion drive
• Gas cap drive
• Water drive
• Gravity drainage drive
• Combination drive
• Liquid expansion and rock compaction drive
DEPLETION DRIVE MECHANISM

In this type of reservoir, the principal source of

energy is a result of gas liberation from the crude oil
and the subsequent expansion of the solution gas as
the reservoir pressure is reduced.

If a reservoir at its bubble point is put on production,

the pressure will fall below the bubble point pressure
and gas will come out of solution. Initially, this gas
may be dispersed, discontinuous phase, but, in
case,
any gas will be essentially until some
minimum saturation
immobile or critical gas saturation, is
attained.
DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF SOLUTION GAS DRIVE

• NO OWC OR GOC ON WELL LOGS

• PRESSURE DECLINE ROUGHLY
PROPORTIONAL GAS
TO PRODUCTION
• FAST PRESSURE AND
PRODUCTION DECLINE
• ULTIMATE RECOVERIES IN 5-30
% RANGE
• LEAST EFFICIENT DRIVE MECHANISM
AND HIGHLY UNDESIRABLE
• EVERY ATTEMPT IS MADE TO
CHANGE THE DRIVE MECHANISM
GAS
( BY AND/OR WATER INJECTION,
THE PROCESS BEING CALLED AS
‘PRESSURE MAINTENEANCE)
DEPLETION DRIVE MECHANISM
uti
on
sol
ed
Wellbore e rat
Lib gas

Secondary
gas cap

o ves
sm ure
G a s t r u ct DUE TO RAPID PRESSURE
u p
DECLINE RESERVOIR
PRESSURE GOES BELOW SATURATION
PRESSURE, RESULTING IN PHASE SEPARATION
WITHIN THE RESERVOIR
FORMATION OF SECONDORY GAS
CAP, SIZE KEEPS ON INCREASING WITH PRODUCTION
STRUCTURALLY HIGHER WELLS
SHOW INCREASING GOR
Solution Gas Drive in Oil Reservoir

Time years
Typical Production Characteristics
 Solution-Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs

Typical Production Characteristics

Reservoir pressure, psig

Initial reservoir
pressure

Bubblepoint
pressure

0 5 10
Oil recovery, % of
OOIP
Reservoir pressure behavior
GAS-CAP GAS DRIVE MECHANISM
Gas cap drive
reservoirs are by
identified
presence the ofa
with little or no gas water
drive. The cap
gas cap can be
present under initial
reservoir conditions, or it
may be a secondary gas
cap formed from gas that
evolved from solution as
reservoir declined below
bubble point due to
production of fluids.
GAS-CAP GAS DRIVE; DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES

▪ SLOW DECLINE OF RESERVOIR PRESSURE

▪ STABLE GOR OF WELLS AWAY FROM GOC FOR
FAIRLY LONG TIME
▪ HIGH GOR OF THE WELLS CLOSE TO GOC ULTIMATE
▪ RECOVERIES BETWEEN 30-50 %
▪ PREFERENTIAL FLOW OF GAS DUE TO ITS LOWER
VISCOSITY
▪ IF PRODUCED TOO RAPIDLY, BY-PASSING OF
OIL OCCURS, AND HENCE
▪ LIMITATIONS OF PRODUCTION RATES OTHERWISE
LOW RECOVERIES
GAS-CAP GAS DRIVE; DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES
 WATER DRIVE MECHANISM

▪ POSSIBLE WHEN OIL ZONE UNDERLAIN BY WATER

▪ TWO TYPES- EDGE WATER AND BOTTOM WATER DRIVE
▪ PRESSURE TRANSMITTED FROM THE SURROUNDING AQUIFER OR
WATER AT THE EDGE AND BOTTOM OF THE OIL POOL
▪ ENERGY COMES FROM OUTSIDE THE POOL, WATER MOVES IN,
REPLACES PRODUCED OIL OR GAS, AND PRESSURE IS MAINTAINED
▪ IF PRESSURE REMAINS ALMOST CONSTANT WITH PRODUCTION DUE
TO ENTERANCE OF NEW WATER- ACTIVE WATER DRIVE
▪ POSSIBILITY OF ACTIVE WATER DRIVE IF EXTENDING TO
RECHARGE AREA SUPPLYING ENOUGH WATER
▪ IF LENTICULAR RESERVOIR, OR IF IN A FAULT BLOCK, OR SHARP
FACIES VARIATION, CHANCES OF ACTIVE WATER DRIVE HIGHLY
REDUCED.
 Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs

Oil producing well

Oil producing well

Oil Zone

Water Water
Oil Zone
Cross Section
Edge Water Drive Water
Cross Section
Bottom Water Drive
WATER DRIVE MECHANISM

An efficient water driven

reservoir requires a large
aquifer body with a high
degree of transmissibility
allowing large volumes of
water to move across the
oil-water contact
in to
pressure
response drop. small
WATER DRIVE MECHANISM DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES

OCCURRENCE OF OWC
ON LOGS
NO APPRICIABLE
PRESSURE REDUCTION
WITH PRODUCTION
ULTIMATE RECOVERIES
REASONABLY HIGH (>50
%)
WATER CUTTING IN
STRUCTURALLY LOWER
WELLS WITH
PRODUCTION DUE TO
UPWARD MOVEMENT OF
OWC
STABLE GOR VALUES
FOR A LONG TIME
DECLINE IN OIL RATE
ONLY DUE TO
INCREASING WATER CUT
 Gravity Drainage in Oil Reservoirs

Gravitational forces:
Gravitational segregation is tendency of fluids in
reservoir to segregate, under inference of gravity, to position in
reservoir based on fluids' density (gas to move above oil, water
below oil).

Reservoir type

•Gravity drainage may occur in any type of reservoir.

•Gravity drainage is particularly important in solution-gas

and gas-cap drive oil reservoirs.
Gravity Drainage in Oil Reservoirs
 Gravity Drive Mechanism

• GRAVITY ACTS AS A DRIVE MECHANISM THROUGHOUT

THE PRODUCING LIFE OF ALL THE POOLS
• SIGNIFICANT IN HIGH RELIEF TRAPS
• SEPARATION OF WATER, OIL AND GAS IS AIDED
BY GRAVITY ONLY
• IN SOLUTION GAS DRIVE RESERVOIRS, GRAVITY DRIVE
BECOMES IMPORTANT IN LATER STAGES
• IT PROLONGS THE LIFE OF MANY WELLS
 COMBINATION DRIVE MECHANISM

Two combinations of driving forces can be present in

combination drive reservoirs:

• Depletion drive and a weak water drive

•Depletion drive with small gas cap and a weak drive

Gravity segregation plays an important role in any of

the above mentioned drives
 COMBINATION DRIVE MECHANISM

OPERATIVE WHEN BOTH FREE GAS ABOVE

THE OIL ZONE AND WATER BELOW ARE
PRESENT.

GOC GAS
OIL
OWC
WATER
COMBINATION DRIVE MECHANISM
BOTH OWC AND GOC ARE
SEEN ON LOGS.
WITH PRODUCTION GOC
MOVES DOWNWARD AND
OWC MOVES UPWARD
WITH PRODUCTION
HIGHER GOR IN
STRUCTURALLY
WELLS AND INCRESED
HIGHER
WATER IN
CUT
STRUCTURALLY LOWER
WELLS
HIGHR
RECOVERY FACTORS ( 50-
EASONABLY
75 %)
Thank You
 COMPACTION DRIVE MECHANISM

• The production of fluids from a reservoir will increase the difference

between overburden pressure and pore pressure,
therebycausing a reduction of pore volume of
the reservoir and possible causing
•subsidence of the surface.

•Oil recovery by compaction

that have a drive is significant
significant only if formation
compaction drive are
compressibility is high. Most reservoirs
shallow and poorly consolidated.
GAS-CAP GAS DRIVE MECHANISM
The general behavior of gas drive reservoirs is similar to
that of solution gas drives reservoirs, except that the
presence of free gas retards the decline in pressure. The
characteristics trends of such reservoirs are:

• Reservoir pressure:
The reservoir pressure falls slowly and continuously.
As compared to depletion drive, pressure
tends to be
maintained at a higher level. The gas
cap gas volume compared to
oil volume determines the
degree of
pressure maintenance.

• Water production:
GAS-CAP GAS DRIVE MECHANISM
• Gas – Oil ratio

With the advancement of gas cap in the producing

intervals of up-structure wells, the gas – oil ratio
will increase to high values.

•Ultimate recovery:

Since gas cap expansion is basically a frontal

drive displacing mechanism, oil recovery is more
efficient as compared to depletion drive reservoirs.
The expected oil recoveries range from 20 to 40%.
WATER DRIVE MECHANISM

The replacement mechanism has two particular

characteristics –
1.there must be pressure drops in order to have
expansion,
2.the aquifer response may lag substantially,
particularly if transmissibility deteriorates in the
aquifer.

A water drive reservoir is then particularly rate

sensitive, and so the reservoir behave almost as a
depletion reservoir for a long period if off-take rates
are very high, or as an almost complete pressure
maintained water drive reservoir if off-take rates are
low, for the given aquifer.
WATER DRIVE MECHANISM

The following characteristics can be used

for identification of the water-drive mechanism:
•Reservoir pressure: The reservoir pressure decline is
usually very gradual.

•Water production: Early water production occurs

in structurally low wells.

•Gas - Oil Ratio: There is normally little change in

the producing gas oil ratio during the life of reservoir.

•Ultimate oil recovery: Ultimate recovery from water-drive

reservoirs is usually much larger than recovery under any other
mechanism. Recovery is dependent upon the efficiency of the
flushing action of the water as it displaces the oil.
 DEPLETION DRIVE MECHANISM
In brief, the characteristic trends occurring during the
production life of depletion drive reservoirs can be
summarized as :

Reservoir pressure: Declines rapidly and

continuously

Gas-Oil ratio : Increases to maximum and then

declines Water production: None

Well behavior : Requires pumping at early

stage Oil recovery : 5 to 30%

Capillarity
Tars and Asphalts

□ These solid and semi solid substances are also known as

bitumen, waxes and resins

□ They are very complex substances and relatively little is

known regarding their chemical composition

□ These materials are formed in nature from petroleum oils

by evaporation of the more volatile constituents and
oxidation and polymerization of residue
Chemical composition of petroleum deposits

Petroleum deposits obtained from different reservoirs will vary

widely in chemical composition and may have entirely different
physical and Chemical Properties

They may be present in the reservoir in liquid and/or gas form

depending upon the pressure, temperature and composition

In spite of this diversity, the bulk of the chemical compounds

found in Petroleum are hydrocarbons:

1. Paraffin hydrocarbons (CnH2n+2)

2.Naphthalene hydrocarbons

3.Aromatic hydrocarbons
Petroleum oil

Petroleum oil or crude oil is a complex mixture consisting

largely of hydrocarbons belonging to various series
In addition, crude usually contain small amounts of combined
oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur
No crude oil has ever been entirely separated into its individual
components.
Crude oils obtained from various reservoir have different
properties because of the presence of different proportions of
hydrocarbons constituents
Nearly all crude oils will give ultimate analysis within the
following limits
Element carbon hydrogen sulfur nitrogen Oxygen

% Weight 84-87 11-14 0.6-2.0 0.1-2.0 0.1-2.0

Natural Gas

Natural gas can occur by itself or in combination with liquid

petroleum oils

It consists mainly of the more volatile members of the paraffin

series containing from one to four carbon atoms

Small amount of higher molecular weight hydrocarbons can

also be present

In addition, natural gases may contain varying amount of

carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, helium and water
vapor

Natural gas can be classified as sweet or sour and as wet or dry