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COMPOSITION AND CONSTITUTION OF THE EARTH

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3.1 PLATE TECTONICS
Tectonics is the study of origin and arrangement of the
broad structural features of the earth‘s surface,
including folds, faults, mountain belts continents and
earthquake belts.
The basic idea of plate tectonics is that the earth‘s
surface is divided into a few, large, thick plates (as
shown in Figure 3.1) that move slowly and change in
size. Intense geologic activity occurs at plate
boundaries where the plates move away from each
other, past one another or toward one another.
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Figure 3.1: The major world tectonic plates
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The concept of plate tectonics was born in the late 1960s by
combining two pre-existing ideas: continental drift and sea
floor spreading.
Continental drift is the idea that continents move freely over
the earth‘s surface, changing their position relative to one
another.
Sea-floor spreading is the hypothesis that the sea floor forms
at the crest of the mid-ocean ridge then moves horizontally
away from the crest toward an oceanic trench. The two sides
of the ridge move in opposite directions like a slow conveyor
belt. The sea floor moves at the rate of 1 to 6 cm per year. As
the sea floor moves younger rocks are formed at the mid
ocean ridge (see Figure 3.2).
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Figure 3.2: Sea floor spreading at mid-ocean ridge

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The driving force behind sea-floor spreading is convection
as shown in Figure 3.3. Convection is a circulation pattern
driven by rising of hot mantle material and/or sinking of
cold material.
As the hot rock continues to rise beneath the ridge crest,
the circulation pattern splits and diverges near the surface.
Mantle rock moves horizontally away from the ridge crest
on each side of the ridge. This movement creates tension
at the ridge crest, cracking open the oceanic crust to form
the rift valley and its associated shallow-focus
earthquakes.
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3.2 CONTINENTAL DRIFT
The theories of continental drift and plate tectonics. The
theory of continental drifting was first introduced by a
German meteorologist and geophysicist named Alfred
Wegener in 1915, when he published his book, “The Origin
of Continents and Oceans.”
He argued that the continents of Earth were once joined
together to form one giant continent, or supercontinent,
called Pangaea. As a result of the Moon‘s tidal influence,
Pangaea began to separate into continents that moved
westward to the positions where they are today.
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Science is based on more than mere empirical
observation — we strive to understand the
mechanisms. We must develop a theory to
explain our observations.
Wegener's idea of continental drift was not
generally accepted because no one could come
up with a reasonable mechanism for the
movement of the continents.

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It was not until the 1960's that further data led to the
development of the theory of plate tectonics that
could explain the movement of continents based on
scientific measurements.
Looking at a map of the Earth, it appears that the
continents could fit together like a jigsaw puzzle.
Wegener developed his idea based upon 4 different
types of evidence: i) Fit of the Continents; ii) Fossil
Evidence; iii) Rock Type and Structural Similarities, iv)
Paleo-climatic Evidence.
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Evidences supporting the theory of continental
drift:
1. Fit of continents
It was the amazingly good fit of the continents that
first suggested the idea of continental drift. In the
1960's, it was recognized that the fit of the
continents could be even further improved by
fitting the continents at the edge of the continental
slope — the actual extent of the continental crust.

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Figure 3.4: World map and the fit of continents

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2. Fossil Evidence
Wegener found that identical fossils were located directly
opposite on widely separated continents. This had been realized
previously but the idea of "land bridges" was the most widely
accepted solution. Wegener found fossils to be convincing
evidence that a supercontinent had existed in the past.
3. Rock Type and Structural Similarities
We find similar rock types on continents on opposite sides of the
Atlantic Ocean. Similar, age, structure and rock types are found
in the Appalachian Mountains and mountains in Scotland and
Scandinavia. When the continents are reassembled, the
mountain chains from a continuous belt — having the same rock
types, structures and rock ages.
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4. Paleo-climatic Evidence
Glacial till of the same age is found in southern Africa,
South America, India and Australia — areas that it would
be very difficult to explain the occurrence of glaciation. At
the same time, large coal deposits were formed from
tropical swamps in N. America and Europe. Pangaea with
S. Africa centred over the South Pole could account for the
conditions necessary to generate glacial ice in the
southern continents. In addition, the areas with extensive
coal deposits from the same time period occur in regions
that would have been equatorial.
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