Network Models

2.1 .
 A Network is ..
 A combination of hardware (HW) and software (SW) that
send data from one location to another.
 HW: physical equipment that carries signals from

one point of the network to another

 SW: instruction sets that make possible the services

that we expect from a network.

Data transformed into the form

of electromagnetic signals when
sent along a transmission
medium (link).

2.2
 Network Protocol

 Rules that the sender, receiver and immediate

devices need to follow for communication.
 Architecture: General blue prints that guide the
design and implementation of networks.
 Examples:
 OSI architecture

 TCP/IP architecture

2.3
 Concept of Layers

 We use the concept of layers in our daily life.

 Protocol layers helps us to divide complex and long
tasks into several smaller and simpler tasks.
 Single layer communication protocol

 Two friends living in neighborhood, with lots of

common ideas talking to each other.

What rules should they follow?

2.4
 Concept of Layers

 Multi layer communication

 As an example, let us consider two friends who

communicate through postal mail.

 The process of sending a letter to a friend would be

complex if there were no services available from the

post office.

2.5
 3 Layer Protocol

2.6
 Tasks involved in sending a letter

2.7
 Hierarchy
 The tasks must
be performed in
the order
specified by the
hierarchy of the
layers!

2.8
 Concept of Layers
 Each layer provides a specific set of services.
 Services are provided through the definition of protocols.
 Each layer uses the services provided by the lower/above
layers.
 Layers use protocols to communicate with each others.
 Layering provides two nice features:
 Decomposes the problem of building a network into

more manageable components.

 Provides a more modular design, modifying the

functionality of the different layers without affecting the

whole system (Modularity)
 Only a layer can be changed instead of replacing the

entire system.
2.9
 Advantages of Protocol Layering
 Separation of services from implementation becomes
possible
 A layer should be able to receive the services from

the lower layers and should be able to provide the

services to the upper layers.
 Implementation of layers not need to be known.

 Some systems might not need all layers, for example

when connected to the internet.
 In case layers were not there, the intermediate

systems would have been as complex as the end

systems.

2.10
 Principles of Protocol Layering
 2 principles for bidirectional communication
 Each layer should be able to perform opposite tasks in
each direction.
 First layer: Send/Receive

 Second Layer: Encrypt/Decrypt

 Third Layer: Talk/Listen

 Two objects under each layer at both sides should be

identical

2.11
 Layer-to-Layer communication

2.12
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
• Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
• Used in the internet today
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of
which provides a specific functionality.
• The layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite contain relatively independent
protocols.
• The application uses the best suited protocol from each layer.
• The term hierarchical means that each upper-level protocol is supported
by one or more lower-level protocols.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers:
host-to-network, internet, transport, and application.
• Today TCP-IP is considered to have a 5-layer model

2.13
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

2.14
 • Communication from A to B
• 5 communication devices
• Router connects networks
with different protocols
• Switch connects same links
2.15
2.16
2.17
 The Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Application
Presentation FTP HTTP DNS NFS …
Session

Transport TCP UDP

ICMP IGMP

Network IP
ARP RARP

Data link
Physical
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

18
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
 Physical Layer
 Carries individual bits in a frame across the link.

 Transmission media under the physical layer

 Actually, electrical or light signal is sent (bits are

assumed)

2.19
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
 Data Link Layer
 A network in a TCP/IP internetwork can be a local-area

network or a wide-area network.

 Router determines the best link and link layer moves

datagram across the link.

 The link can be wired or wireless LAN or WAN.
 No specific protocol is defined at this layer, rather, TCP/IP
model supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.
 Any protocol that can carry a packet across the link can suffice for
the link layer.
 Error correction may be provided by the link layer.

2.20
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

 Network layer (internetwork layer)

 Responsible for creating connection between source and

destination computers
 Host-to-host communication but routers are responsible for

selecting the best path.

 Network layer ensures end-to-end communication by

establishing the route.

2.21
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

 TCP/IP at this layer supports the Internetworking

Protocol (IP) (for the Internet)
 IP defines the format of the packet.
 IP also defines the format of addresses used at this layer.
 IP routes the packet from the source to destination.
 Connection-less protocol: provides no flow control, no
congestion control, no error control.
 Network layer also includes unicast & multicast
routing protocols.
 IP does the routing but these routing protocols create the
forwarding tables.

2.22
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

 There are also some other protocols that support data

movement in this layer.
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
 It is used to find the physical address (NIC) of the node after its
Network address is known.
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
 It is used to find the Internet address of the node after its
physical address is known.
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
 It is used by hosts and gateways to send notification of
datagrams ( packets) problem back to the sender.
 Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)
 It is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of
messages to a group of recipients (multi-tasking).
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
 Helps IP to get the network address for a host.
2.23
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
 Transport Layer
 End-to-end communication.

 Encapsulates the packet in a transport-layer packet

(segment or user-datagram).
 In this layer, the protocol is responsible for delivery of

message from a process to another process through the

logical connection.

2.24
 Protocols at The Transport Layer
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 It is reliable and connection-oriented.
 Creates logical connections between transport layers of 2
hosts for transmitting bytes.
 Provides flow control (matches data rate of the source host
with the destination host), error control (ensures that packets
are sent without error or retransmits) and congestion control
(to prevent the packet loss).

2.25
 Protocols at The Transport Layer
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 Connection-less, does not work with the logical connections.
 Each user datagram is sent as a separate entity.
 Does not provide error, flow or congestion control
functionalities.
 Has small overhead and used by the applications having small
packets.

 Stream Control Transmission Protocol (STCP)

 It supports the newer application e.g. voice over the Internet.
 It combines best features of UDP and TCP.

2.26
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
 Application Layer
 Two application layers exchange messages between

each other through the logical connection.

 Communication is between the two processes running

at the application layer.

 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
 For accessing the World Wide Web (WWW)
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 Email service
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Transferring files from one host to another.
 Terminal Network (TELNET) & Secure Shell (SSH)
 Accessing a site remotely
2.27
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
 Administrator uses for managing internet or other
global networks
 Domain Name System (DNS)
 Used by protocols to find the network-layer address
of the computer.
 Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
 Collects membership in the group.

2.28
 Encapsulation & Decapsulation

2.29
 Encapsulation At Sender
 Application Layer
 Message is generated
 Transport Layer
 Takes application layer message as the payload and adds header to it
 Headers contain identifier information of the source & destination and
some information required for the end-to-end delivery.
 Information about error control, flow control or congestion control.
 User datagram or segment is made
 Network layer
 Takes transport layer message as the payload and adds header
 Headers contain identifier information of the source & destination and
some information for error checking and fragmentation
 Datagram is made
 Data Link Layer
 Takes network layer message as the payload and adds header
 Adds link layer addresses of the host or the next hop (router).
 Link layer packet is called a frame
2.30
 At Router
 Both encapsulation and decapsulation
 Data link layer decapsulates the received bits (datagram) from the
frame and passes to the network layer.
 Network layer inspects the source & destination addresses in the
datagram and uses the forwarding table to find the next hop.
 Contents of datagram are only changed by the router in case
fragmentation is needed.
 Data link layer of the next link encapsulates the packet again using
the information of the next hop and passes to the physical layer.

2.31
 Decapsulation at Destination
 Each layer only decapsulates the packets, removes the header and delivers
to the next higher layer.
 Decapsulation includes the process of error checking.

2.32
 Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP

2.33
 Addressing

2.34
 Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses
in TCP/IP

2.35
 Addressing Concepts
 Logical connections exist between source and destination
hosts.
 Two addresses are needed for communication.
 Four pairs of addresses in TCP/IP architecture.
 Relationship between address and the packet name at each
layer
 Application layer: names (such as websites or email IDs)
 Transport Layer: Port numbers (local addresses)
 Network layer: Global addresses
 Link-Layer: MAC addresses

2.36
 2-5 ADDRESSING
 Physical/Data Link Addresses
 It is known as link address.
 It is the address of a node as defined
by its LAN or WAN.
 The size and format of the address
depend on the network.
 Ethernet uses 6-bytes (48-bits) 
NIC
 LocalTalk (Apple) uses 1-byte
dynamic address

2.37
 Example 2.1

In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a

frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the
figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is
the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is
the receiver.

2.38
 Figure 2.19 Physical addresses

2.39
 Example 2.3

Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two

routers connecting three LANs. Each device
(computer or router) has a pair of addresses
(logical and physical) for each connection. In
this case, each computer is connected to only one
link and therefore has only one pair of addresses.
Each router, however, is connected to three
networks (only two are shown in the figure). So
each router has three pairs of addresses, one for
each connection.

2.40
 Figure 2.20 IP addresses

2.41
 Note

• The physical addresses will change from

hop to hop, but the logical addresses
usually remain the same.
• No two hosts on the Internet have the
same IP address.

2.42
 2-5 ADDRESSING

 Port Addresses
 It is necessary for the receiver device
that runs multiple process to receive
data simultaneously  this make a
need to label each process
 A port address is 16-bits.

2.43
 Example 2.4

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via

the Internet. The sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c.
The receiving computer is running two processes at this
time with port addresses j and k. Process a in the
sending computer needs to communicate with process j
in the receiving computer. Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port
addresses remain the same from the source to
destination.

2.44
 Figure 2.21 Port addresses

2.45
 Note

The physical addresses change from hop to hop,

but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.

2.46
 2-5 ADDRESSING

 Specific Addresses

Examples
 e-mail address
 URL address

 Those addresses get changed to the

corresponding port and logical
address by the sending computer.

2.47
 Multiplexing & Demultiplexing

2.48
 Multiplexing & Demultiplexing
 A protocol at a layer can encapsulate packets from several protocols
running at the higher layers.
 A protocol at a layer can decapsulate packets from several protocols
running at the lower layers.
 Packet should have a field in its header field to identify its belonging
protocol
 Transport layer: TCP & UDP could receive a message from different
application-layer protocols.
 Network: IP can accept segment from TCP or user datagram from
UDP, or packets from ICMP, IGMP.
 Data link layer: may carry the packets coming from IP or ARP.

2.49
 Summary of TCP/IP

2.50