History

of
Atomic Models
Democritus 460 BC

Atomos – “uncuttable” or “indivisible”

Democritus 460 BC

Atomos – “uncuttable” or “indivisible”

2 Main ideas
 Atoms are the smallest possible particle of
matter
 There are different types of atoms for each
material
 John Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1804
1. All matter is made of atoms.
 John Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1804
1. All matter is made of atoms.
2. Atoms of one element are all the same.
 John Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1804
1. All matter is made of atoms.
2. Atoms of one element are all the same.
3. Atoms cannot be broken down into
smaller parts
 John Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1804
1. All matter is made of atoms.
2. Atoms of one element are all the same.
3. Atoms cannot be broken down into
smaller parts
4. Compounds form by combining atoms
 Dalton’s Early Atomic Model

• “Billiard Ball” model

 J.J. Thomson
1897

• Discovered the electron

• He was the first scientist to show the atom

was made of even smaller things
 J.J. Thomson
• Used the Cathode ray tube to discover electrons
Thomson’s “Plum Pudding” Atom Model
Eugen Goldstein 1850-1930

 He is credited with the discovery of

protons in an atom.
Ernest Rutherford - 1913

• discovered the
nucleus of a gold
atom with his “gold
foil” experiment
Rutherford’s Conclusion

• The atom is mostly empty

space.
Rutherford’s Conclusion

• The atom is mostly empty

space.
• There is a small, dense
center with a positive
charge.
Rutherford’s Conclusion

• The atom is mostly empty

space.
• There is a small, dense
center with a positive
charge.
• Rutherford discovered the
nucleus in atoms
 Rutherford’s Contribution to the
Atomic Theory

• The atom is mostly empty

space.
• The nucleus is a small,
dense core with a positive
charge.
Rutherford’s Atomic Model
Structure of the Atom
• Atom – smallest particle of an element that can exist
alone
• Two regions of an atom
• Nucleus
• Center of atom
• Protons and neutrons
• Electron “cloud”
• Area surrounding nucleus
containing electrons
Structure of the Atom
• Proton – Positive charge (+), 1 atomic mass unit
(amu); found in the nucleus
• amu -Approximate mass of a proton or a neutron
• Neutron – Neutral charge (0), 1 amu; found in the
nucleus
• Electron – Negative charge (-), mass is VERY small
Energy Levels in Atoms

What did Bohr propose in

his model of the atom?
Limitations of Rutherford’s Atomic Model
• It explained only a few simple
properties of atoms.
Limitations of Rutherford’s Atomic Model
• It explained only a few simple
properties of atoms.
• It could not explain the chemical
properties of elements.

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Limitations of Rutherford’s Atomic Model
• It explained only a few simple
properties of atoms.
• It could not explain the chemical
properties of elements.
For example, Rutherford’s model
could not explain why an object
such as the iron scroll shown here
first glows dull red, then yellow,
and then white when heated to
higher and higher temperatures.
The Bohr Model
•In 1913, Niels Bohr (1885–1962), a young Danish
physicist and a student of Rutherford, developed a new
atomic model.

• He changed Rutherford’s model to incorporate

newer discoveries about how the energy of an
atom changes when the atom absorbs or
emits light.
The Bohr Model

•Bohr proposed that an electron is

found only in specific circular paths,
or orbits, around the nucleus.
The Bohr Model

Each possible electron orbit in Bohr’s

model has a fixed energy.
The Bohr Model
Each possible electron orbit in Bohr’s
model has a fixed energy.
• The fixed energies an electron can
have are called energy levels.
The Bohr Model

Each possible electron orbit in Bohr’s

model has a fixed energy.
• The fixed energies an electron can
have are called energy levels.
• A quantum of energy is the amount of
energy required to move an electron
from one energy level to another
energy level.
How does the Bohr model improve
upon the Rutherford model?
How does the Bohr model improve
upon the Rutherford model?

The Rutherford model could not explain why

elements that have been heated to higher
and higher temperatures give off different
colors of light. The Bohr model explains
how the energy levels of electrons in an
atom change when the atom emits light.
The Quantum Mechanical Model
What does the quantum
mechanical model determine
about the electrons in an atom?
The Quantum Mechanical Model
• Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961) used
new theoretical calculations and experimental results to
devise and solve a mathematical equation describing the
behavior of the electron in a hydrogen atom.

• The modern description of the electrons in atoms, the

quantum mechanical model, came from the
mathematical solutions to the Schrödinger equation.
The Quantum Mechanical Model
• Like the Bohr model, the quantum mechanical
model of the atom restricts the energy of electrons
to certain values.
• Unlike the Bohr model, however, the quantum
mechanical model does not specify an exact path
the electron takes around the nucleus.
The Quantum Mechanical Model
• In the quantum mechanical model,
the probability of finding an electron
within a certain volume of space
surrounding the nucleus can be
represented as a fuzzy cloudlike
region.
• The cloud is more dense where the
probability of finding the electron is
high.
Electron cloud
How are the quantum mechanical
model and the Bohr model alike?
How are they different?
How are the quantum mechanical
model and the Bohr model alike?
How are they different?

Like the Bohr model, the quantum

mechanical model restricts the energy of
electrons to certain values. Unlike the
Bohr model, the quantum mechanical
model does not specify an exact path the
electron takes around the nucleus.
 Glossary Terms

• energy level: the specific energies an electron in

an atom or other system can have
• quantum: the amount of energy needed to move
an electron from one energy level to another

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 Glossary Terms

• quantum mechanical model: the modern

description, primarily mathematical, of the
behavior of electrons in atoms
• atomic orbital: a mathematical expression
describing the probability of finding an electron at
various locations; usually represented by the
region of space around the nucleus where there
is a high probability of finding an electron

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 Atomic Orbitals

Atomic Orbitals

How do sublevels of principal

energy levels differ?

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 Atomic Orbitals

• Solutions to the Schrödinger equation give

the energies, or energy levels, an electron
can have.

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 Atomic Orbitals

• Solutions to the Schrödinger equation give

the energies, or energy levels, an electron
can have.
• For each energy level, the Schrödinger
equation also leads to a mathematical
expression, called an atomic orbital.

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 Atomic Orbitals

• Solutions to the Schrödinger equation give

the energies, or energy levels, an electron
can have.
• For each energy level, the Schrödinger
equation also leads to a mathematical
expression, called an atomic orbital.
• An atomic orbital is represented pictorially
as a region of space in which there is a
high probability of finding an electron.

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 Atomic Orbitals
• The energy levels of electrons in the
quantum mechanical model are labeled
by principal quantum numbers (n).

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 Atomic Orbitals
• The energy levels of electrons in the
quantum mechanical model are labeled
by principal quantum numbers (n).
• These numbers are assigned the values
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth.

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 Atomic Orbitals
• The energy levels of electrons in the
quantum mechanical model are labeled
by principal quantum numbers (n).
• These numbers are assigned the values
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth.
• For each principal energy level greater
than 1, there are several orbitals with
different shapes and at different energy
levels.

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 Atomic Orbitals
• The energy levels of electrons in the
quantum mechanical model are labeled
by principal quantum numbers (n).
• These numbers are assigned the values
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth.
• For each principal energy level greater
than 1, there are several orbitals with
different shapes and at different energy
levels.
• These energy levels within a principal
energy level constitute energy sublevels.
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 Atomic Orbitals

Each energy sublevel corresponds

to one or more orbitals of different
shapes. The orbitals describe
where an electron is likely to be
found.

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 Atomic Orbitals

Different atomic orbitals are denoted by

letters.
• The s orbitals are spherical.

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 Atomic Orbitals

Different atomic orbitals are denoted by

letters.
• The s orbitals are spherical.
• The p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped.

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 Atomic Orbitals

For a given principal energy level

greater than 1, there is one s orbital…

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 Atomic Orbitals

For a given principal energy level

greater than 1, there is one s orbital, 3
p orbitals...

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 Atomic Orbitals

For a given principal energy level

greater than 1, there is one s orbital, 3
p orbitals, and 5 d orbitals.

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 Atomic Orbitals

Four of the five d orbitals have the same

shape but different orientations in space.

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Atomic Orbitals
The numbers and types of atomic orbitals
depend on the principal energy level.
Summary of Principal Energy Levels and Sublevels
Maximum
Principal Number of
Type of sublevel number of
energy level sublevels
electrons
n=1 1 1s (1 orbital) 2

n=2 2 2s (1 orbital), 2p (3 orbitals) 8

3s (1 orbital), 3p (3 orbitals),
n=3 3 18
3d (5 orbitals)
4s (1 orbital), 4p (3 orbitals),
n=4 4 32
4d (5 orbitals), 4f (7 orbitals)
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 Atomic Orbitals

• The principal quantum number, n, always

equals the number of sublevels within that
principal energy level.

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 Atomic Orbitals

• The principal quantum number, n, always

equals the number of sublevels within that
principal energy level.
• The number of orbitals in a principal
energy level is equal to n2.

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 Atomic Orbitals

• The principal quantum number, n, always

equals the number of sublevels within that
principal energy level.
• The number of orbitals in a principal
energy level is equal to n2.
• A maximum of two electrons can occupy
an orbital.

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 Atomic Orbitals

• The principal quantum number, n, always

equals the number of sublevels within that
principal energy level.
• The number of orbitals in a principal
energy level is equal to n2.
• A maximum of two electrons can occupy
an orbital.
• Therefore, the maximum number of
electrons that can occupy a principal
energy level is given by the formula 2n2.
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Calculate the maximum number of
electrons in the 5th principal energy
level (n = 5).

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Calculate the maximum number of
electrons in the 5th principal energy
level (n = 5).

The maximum number of electrons that can

occupy a principal energy level is given by
the formula 2n2. If n = 5, 2n2 = 50.

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