ONLINE TEST

REVISION
Weeks 0 - 5
Psychoanalysis
■ What was Freud's perspective on human nature, and how did he differ from those who believed in inherent positivity?
– Freud was a pessimist and believed that human nature was not inherently positive. He opposed the idea that people are inherently good,
arguing that history and personal experience justified a more negative view of human nature.
■ What are the three primary genetically built-in drives according to Freud, and which one did he consider the most dominant?
– The three primary genetically built-in drives according to Freud are the instincts of self-preservation, sex, and destruction (or
aggression). Among these, Freud considered the sexual instinct to be the most dominant force influencing human behaviour.
■ How does psychoanalytic theory explain the developmental process in children, and when does development go dormant and resume?
– In psychoanalytic theory, children are believed to follow a genetically determined developmental sequence. This sequence progresses
until around the age of six, after which the psychological developmental process goes dormant. Development resumes at puberty.
■ How did Freud's views on children's psychology contrast with the prevailing beliefs of his time?
– Freud's views on children were more complex than the prevailing beliefs of his time. He believed that children were sexual beings and
experienced murderous fantasies in their pursuit of gratifying primal wishes, which challenged the conventional understanding of
childhood innocence.
■ According to Freud, where do the roots of all psychopathology lie, and what gives rise to such psychopathology?
– According to Freud, the roots of all psychopathology lie in early development. Such psychopathology arises from conflicts among
various psychic entities, particularly conflicts related to the instincts of self-preservation, sex, and aggression.
■ Why did Freud believe that humans are not good at understanding the reasons for their actions?
– Freud believed that humans are not good at understanding the reasons for their actions because he thought that unconscious forces, of
which individuals are unaware, exerted a significant influence on behavior. He referred to this as the power of the unconscious.
■ What does Freud mean by the term "unconscious," and what evidence does he offer for its existence?
– The "unconscious" refers to a part of the mind that contains thoughts, feelings, and desires that are not in conscious awareness
but still influence behaviour. Freud offered evidence for its existence through everyday occurrences like forgetting, mistakes, slips
of the tongue, and dreams, which he interpreted as instances of unconscious material surfacing.
■ Provide an example of a Freudian slip and explain how Freud would interpret it.
– An example of a Freudian slip is when someone mistakenly says "prostitute" instead of "Protestant" when asked about their
religious affiliation. Freud would interpret this as evidence of unconscious sexual urges close to the surface due to the excitement
and stress of impending marriage, triggering unconscious thoughts related to sexual gratification.
■ What did Freud believe was the source of human motivation?
– Intrapsychic conflict
Instinct Theory:

■ What did Freud hypothesize about humans having instinctual urges, and what happens if these urges are not expressed?
– Freud hypothesized that humans have instinctual urges that are innate, and if these urges are not expressed, individuals can become dysfunctional or ill.

■ What are the two primary instincts described by Freud, and how do they sometimes interact?
– The two primary instincts described by Freud are Eros (life instinct) and Thanatos (death instinct). Sometimes, these instincts can fuse and interact.

■ Name and explain the four ways in which instincts can be expressed, according to Rickman.
– The four ways in which instincts can be expressed are (a) turning into the opposite, (b) turning back on the person, (c) repressing or banishing to
the unconscious, and (d) sublimating or expressing in socially approved activity.

■ How do problems in development lead to fixation of the libido, and what is the consequence of fixation?
– Problems in development can lead to fixation of the libido at a particular stage, and fixation can later result in regression to that stage under traumatic
circumstances.
Topographic Model: The Iceberg Approach:

■ Describe Freud's early model of mental content and levels of consciousness.

– Freud's early model differentiated between three types of mental content: conscious awareness, preconscious, and unconscious.

■ How did Freud differentiate among conscious, unconscious, and preconscious mental content?
– According to Freud's early model, most behaviour stems from the unconscious, and conscious thought represents only the tip of the iceberg, with the real motivations
lying beneath the surface.

■ What did Freud mean by "primary process," and how does it relate to the id's mode of operation?

■ "Primary process" refers to the basic, primitive form of psychic activity associated with the id's mode of operation.

Structural Model: The Big Three:

■ What are the three basic divisions of the mind in Freud's structural model, and what are the corresponding terms for these divisions?
– The three divisions in Freud's structural model are the id, ego, and superego. The corresponding terms for these divisions are id, ego, and superego.

■ Explain the characteristics and functions of the id in Freud's theory.

– The id is the most primitive psychic entity, housing instinctual urges and seeking immediate gratification of its needs. It operates on the pleasure principle.

■ How does the ego differ from the id in terms of its operation and purpose?
– The ego develops out of the id and operates according to the reality principle. It seeks to satisfy id impulses while preserving the individual's well-being.

■ What is the superego, and what roles does it play in an individual's psyche?
– The superego is the internalized version of authority figures, serving as the conscience and vehicle for the ego-ideal.

Repression:

■ Define "repression" in psychoanalytic theory, and how does it relate to symptom formation and fixation?
– Repression is the act of containing unacceptable psychic material in or pushing it to the unconscious. It's involved in symptom formation and fixation, leading to
developmental "stuckness."

■ What is meant by "developmental stuckness" as a result of repression?

– "Developmental stuckness" refers to a person becoming fixated at a certain developmental stage due to repression.
Symptoms as Symbols:
■ According to Freud, what did symptoms represent in terms of psychic conflict?
– Freud believed symptoms represented psychic conflict and were often expressions of unacceptable sexual impulses or defence mechanisms
against these impulses.
■ Give an example of how a symptom might serve as a symbol for an unacceptable wish.
– An example of a symptom as a symbol is uncontrollable vomiting symbolizing morning sickness accompanying a wish for impregnation.
Defence Mechanisms:
■ How do defence mechanisms function to protect the individual's psyche?
– Defence mechanisms function to prevent unacceptable wishes from entering conscious awareness. They distort reality to protect the ego's
functioning and the individual's safety.
■ Name and describe at least three defence mechanisms mentioned in the text..
– Three defence mechanisms mentioned in the text are identification, displacement, and projection.
■ How does projection differ from displacement in terms of the externalization of unacceptable wishes?
– Projection involves externalizing unacceptable wishes onto others, while displacement involves deflecting an unwelcome impulse onto a less
threatening target.
■ Explain the concept of sublimation as a defence mechanism and provide an example.
– Sublimation is a defence mechanism where unacceptable impulses are redirected into socially acceptable activities. For example, artists
sublimating libidos into creative products.
■ What is regression, and when might an individual exhibit regressive behaviour according to Freud?
– Regression is seen when a person retreats to an earlier stage of development, often in response to overwhelming stressors.
Theory of the Person and Development of the Individual:

■ What was Freud's perspective on human sexuality, particularly in infants and young children?
– Freud proposed that humans are inherently sexual creatures, including infants and young children, and that gender identification results from an inherent
tendency toward maleness or femaleness, along with the resolution of a key developmental crisis.

■ According to psychoanalytic theory, what are the psychosexual stages, and what can happen if there is too much or too little satisfaction in these stages?
– The psychosexual stages are a series of developmental stages from birth to puberty, characterized by satisfaction of the sexual drive through different
erotogenic zones. Too much or too little satisfaction can lead to fixation at a stage, causing difficulties in navigating subsequent stages.

■ Describe the oral stage of psychosexual development, including the erotogenic zone and potential fixation outcomes.
– The oral stage is the first stage of sexual development, focused on the mouth as the erotogenic zone. It involves activities like sucking. Fixations at this stage
can manifest as oral habits like nail biting or smoking.

■ What is the anal stage, and how does psychoanalytic theory relate this stage to later personality characteristics?
– The anal stage is the second stage of development, involving satisfaction through elimination functions. Freud suggested that toilet training during this stage
can influence personality traits. Harsh training might lead to anal retentive traits, while excessive praise might lead to anal expulsive traits.

■ What is the most important stage of psychosexual development, and what is the focus of sexual gratification during this stage?
– The most important stage is the phallic stage, occurring between ages 4 and 6. Sexual gratification during this stage is focused on the genitals.

■ How does Freud describe the course of development for boys and girls during the phallic stage?
– Both boys and girls turn their attention to the genitals during the phallic stage, but their paths diverge as they realize differences between male and female
genitals.

■ What is the Oedipus complex, and how does it relate to boys' development during the phallic stage?
– The Oedipus complex is a phase in boys' development where they have incestuous desires for their mother and fear castration from their father. This phase is
resolved through identification with the father.

■ How does Freud explain the development of girls during the phallic stage, and what is the primary challenge they face?
– Freud described girls' development as involving attachment to the mother initially, then turning to attach to the father. Girls face the challenge of penis envy,
which may not always be resolved.
• Describe the resolution of the Oedipal complex in girls and the challenges they might face.
• Girls renounce clitoral masturbation and seek attachment to the father, but unresolved penis envy can lead to envy and jealousy throughout life.
Their relationship with their mother may remain ambivalent.​
• After the phallic stage, what is the latency period, and how does Freud characterize it?
• The latency period follows the phallic stage and is characterized by sexual quiescence. While sexual urges are usually repressed, some
manifestations of sexuality may still break through.​
• When does mature sexuality develop according to Freud, and how does it integrate the sexual instinct and reproductive function?
• Mature sexuality develops during the genital stage, which begins in adolescence. It integrates the sexual instinct with the reproductive function.
Excessive pleasure in earlier erotogenic zones can derail the development of mature sexuality during this stage.
Health and Dysfunction:
■ What are the characteristics of healthy individuals according to psychoanalysis, and what is the goal of psychoanalysis?
– Healthy individuals can love and work, with minimal repression. The goal of psychoanalysis is to reduce repression by bringing unconscious
material into consciousness.
■ How does psychoanalysis view dysfunction, and what is the origin of dysfunctional behaviour according to Freud?
– Dysfunction originates from unresolved unconscious conflicts, particularly those related to the Oedipal stage of psychosexual development.
Freud believed that dysfunction originates by age 6 due to unsuccessful resolution of these stages.
■ What are the three types of anxiety identified by Freud, and how do they differ?
– Freud identified realistic, neurotic, and moral anxiety. Realistic anxiety is a reaction to real danger, neurotic anxiety is fear of libidinal drives,
and moral anxiety is fear of the punitive superego.
■ How does neurotic anxiety relate to emerging instinctual urges, and what can happen if these urges are not managed?
– Neurotic anxiety arises when instinctual urges are close to consciousness. The ego allows anxiety to surface due to perceived danger, and
repression may follow, leading to symptoms or conversion of the urge.
■ Describe the concept of hysteria, now known as conversion disorder, according to psychoanalysis.
– Hysteria involves physiological symptoms without apparent physical basis. It results from anxiety due to unacceptable sexual impulses
threatening consciousness. Symptoms symbolize childhood events.
■ What are phobias in psychoanalysis, and how are they formed?
– Phobias are a type of hysteria where sexual impulses are repressed, converted to anxiety, and attached to external objects. The phobic creates
structures to keep the feared libido at bay.
■ How does Freud conceptualize obsessive-compulsive neurosis, and what role does fixation play?
– Obsessive-compulsive neurosis stems from fixation in the anal stage, particularly due to harsh toilet training. Sadistic urges developed during
this time can be expressed through defence mechanisms like reaction formation.
■ How does Freud differentiate between melancholia and mourning?
– Mourning involves the gradual withdrawal of libido from an object after a loss, while melancholia results from an overly critical superego that
turns feelings toward the lost object onto the ego.
■ How did Freud view psychoses and schizophrenia, and what was his conceptualization of psychosis?
– Freud discussed psychoses as forms of narcissism. Psychosis occurs when the libido abandons object attachments and attaches to the ego.
There's a splitting of the ego where two separate ideations coexist—those of the ego and those of the id.
Assessment:
■ How did Freud approach the assessment of his clients, and what were his primary considerations?
– Freud used informal approaches to assessment. He recommended a 2-week trial period to ascertain if the client was suitable for analysis. He
aimed to differentiate between hysterical or obsessive neurosis and schizophrenia, which he considered untreatable by psychoanalysis.
■ What are some methods used in psychoanalysis for accessing unconscious material, and how do they work?
– Formal assessments often use ambiguous stimuli like the Rorschach inkblot test. Clients associate to the stimuli, and therapists analyse the
responses to deduce unconscious processes projected onto the cards.
■ How does the Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual (PDM) differ from the DSM-V, and what is its purpose?
– The PDM is a diagnostic system developed by psychoanalytic organizations, intended to complement the DSM and provide a fuller
Overview of the Therapeutic Atmosphere:
■ How did Freud initially attempt to access the unconscious, and how did his approach evolve over time?
– Freud initially used hypnosis and later placed his hands on clients' foreheads to evoke memories. He shifted to a neutral and abstinent approach, banishing
the therapist's personality to allow clients to project unconscious material.
■ What is the significance of the analytic couch in classical psychoanalysis, and how did Freud explain its use?
– The analytic couch allowed the client to speak freely while preventing them from seeing the therapist's expressions. Freud believed this maintained the
abstentious atmosphere and allowed projection of unconscious material.
■ How did Freud view the therapist's role in the therapeutic relationship, and what term did he use to describe the therapist's attitude?
– Freud described the therapist's attitude as one of "evenly suspended attention." He believed the therapist should remain neutral and abstinent, allowing the
client to project unconscious material.
■ How did Freud approach the frequency of psychoanalysis sessions and the duration of the therapeutic process?
– Freud advocated seeing clients daily, six days a week, and believed in long-term analysis, sometimes lasting for years.
Roles of Client and Counsellor:
■ How did Freud's medical background influence the roles of the client and counsellor in psychoanalysis?
– Freud's medical perspective led to the roles of therapist as a doctor and client as a patient. The therapist interprets the client's productions based on the
fundamental rule, and the client complies with this dynamic.
■ Why did Freud believe it was important for psychoanalysts to undergo analysis themselves?
– Freud believed undergoing analysis, called training, control, or personal analysis, was essential for psychoanalysts to become aware of their own complexes
and ensure they don't interfere with their work.
Goals:
• What is the primary goal of psychoanalysis, according to Freud?
• The main goal of psychoanalysis is to help the client uncover and resolve unconscious conflicts, thereby strengthening the ego and redirecting energy to
conscious processes. Symptom removal is not the main focus, as conflicts might manifest through other symptoms.
• What are the purposes of analytic methods, as identified by contemporary psychoanalysts?
• Contemporary psychoanalysts identify four purposes of analytic methods: uncovering inner problems disguised as symptoms, promoting client integration,
Therapeutic Techniques in Psychoanalysis:
■ What is the significance of the therapist's passive approach in psychoanalysis, and how does it relate to therapeutic
techniques?
– The therapist's passive approach aligns with the lack of overt techniques in psychoanalysis. This approach creates
an environment where the client's unconscious material can emerge naturally.
■ What is the primary technique in psychoanalysis that allows the unconscious to reveal itself?
– The primary technique is "free association," where the client freely expresses thoughts and feelings without
censorship, enabling the emergence of unconscious material.
■ How does interpretation function as a powerful technique in psychoanalysis?
– Interpretation involves the therapist analysing the client's material to uncover connections to past conflicts and
unconscious material. Interpretations are made when the client is nearly ready to discover these connections and
when a sufficient level of transference has developed.
■ Why did Freud emphasize the timing of interpretations in psychoanalysis?
– Freud noticed that premature interpretations could evoke resistance in clients, so he advocated making
interpretations when the client was almost ready to make these connections themselves and when the transference
had sufficiently developed.
■ What role does interpretation play in the analysis of resistance and dream analysis?
– Interpretation is crucial in analysing resistance and dream material. Correct interpretations of transference are
essential to help the client understand that their behaviour is rooted in past relationships rather than the present
therapist-client relationship.
■ What is the purpose of analysing resistance in psychoanalysis, and how does it progress during treatment?
– Resistance analysis helps the therapist identify and address barriers to progress, such as forgetting appointments
or flight into health. Minor resistances are interpreted early in therapy, while more threatening ones, like
■ What did Freud consider dreams to be in the context of psychoanalytic theory?
– Freud viewed dreams as symbolic wish fulfilments that contained both manifest content (reported content) and latent content
(disguised, unconscious content). The latter is of particular interest in psychoanalysis.
■ How does dream analysis contribute to the therapeutic process in psychoanalysis?
– When a client reports a dream, the analyst asks the client to free associate to its content. The analyst then interprets the latent
content of the dream, revealing unconscious material. Dreams often involve sexual symbols and can represent complex underlying
meanings.
■ What is the role of the analysis of the transference neurosis in psychoanalysis?
– The analysis of the transference is crucial for successful therapy. It involves the client unconsciously transferring qualities of
significant individuals onto the therapist, especially parental figures. The therapist interprets these feelings and behaviours, starting
with less threatening aspects and progressing to deeper issues.
■ How does the nature of the transference change throughout therapy?
– Early transference tends to be affectionate and positive, resembling idealization of parental figures. However, it can evolve into
erotic or hostile feelings, reflecting the client's unresolved conflicts. The therapist's task is to interpret the transference and help the
client understand its roots in the past.
■ What term is used to describe the ongoing process of addressing and interpreting the transference in psychoanalysis?
– The ongoing process of addressing and interpreting the transference is called "working through." This process involves repeatedly
analysing the client's feelings and behaviours related to the transference to achieve deeper insight and resolution.
Individual Therapy
Basic Philosophy of Alfred Adler's Individual Psychology:
■ How would you describe Adler's view of human nature and behaviour?
– Adler held an optimistic view of the human condition, believing that humans have an innate tendency to strive for perfection. He
viewed the pursuit of perfection as a fundamental motivator of behaviour.
■ What did Adler mean by "social interest" in his theory?
– Adler emphasized the importance of "social interest," which is inherent in human nature. He believed that individuals need the
support of others for survival and that the balance between the natural tendency to feel inferior and the drive for social connection
shapes an individual's psychological world.
■ How did Adler approach the concept of determinism in relation to human behaviour?
– Adler can be described as a soft determinist, meaning that he believed human behaviour could be understood through general
principles and laws, but these understandings are only probabilistic. He believed individuals have the creative capacity to shape
their life paths and goals.
■ What is the essence of Adler's quote: "The important thing is not what one is born with, but what use one makes of that equipment"?
– In this quote, Adler emphasizes that an individual's actions and choices matter more than their genetic or biological inheritance. It
underscores the significance of how individuals use their abilities and respond to challenges.
■ How did Adler view the relationship between heredity, environment, and an individual's attitude toward life?
– Adler believed that heredity provides individuals with certain abilities, and the environment gives them impressions. However, an
individual's attitude toward life is determined by how they creatively use these abilities and impressions, leading to their unique
interpretation of experiences.
■ What role did Adler see for himself as a social activist?
– Adler was known as a social activist who believed that societal change was necessary for improving human health. He criticized the
pursuit of power and superiority as harmful aspects of civilization and discussed cultural issues such as overvaluing masculinity and
undervaluing women.
Human Motivation
■ According to Adler, what is the fundamental motivation that drives human behaviour?
– Adler believed that humans are motivated to strive for superiority. He stated that individuals strive to reach a goal that will make
them feel strong, superior, and complete.
■ What are some terms used interchangeably for the motive of striving for superiority in Adler's theory?
– In Adler's individual psychology, the motive of striving for superiority is referred to using various terms, such as "will to power,"
"striving for significance," and "wish to overcome."
■ How does Adler's view of human motivation differ from the psychoanalytic view?
– In Adler's view, humans are "pulled" by their goals of superiority, whereas in the psychoanalytic view, humans are seen as driven
by their instincts. Adler's perspective emphasizes the importance of the individual's pursuit of goals.
■ What is the relationship between feelings of inferiority and the drive for superiority in Adler's theory?
– Adler initially believed that feelings of inferiority were related to the vulnerability of being born in an undeveloped form and
depending on caretakers. However, he later revised his theory to propose that inferiority feelings arise when the striving for goals is
frustrated.
■ How did Adler incorporate the concept of the need to belong in his theory of human motivation?
– Adler suggested that the need to belong is an innate human inheritance that ensures survival. He believed that infants rely on
others for food, safety, and care, and this need to belong continues to influence human behaviour.
■ According to Adler, what is the ultimate motivation for human behaviour, and how is it resolved?
– Adler believed that the motivation for human behaviour is rooted in the individual's reconciliation between the search for
significance (striving for superiority) and feelings for others. This resolution is a creative process unique to each individual.
■ How does Adler view the understanding of an individual's personality?
– Adler believed that an individual's personality can only be truly understood through their personal plan to achieve superiority. This
plan encompasses how they handle feelings of inferiority and their level of belongingness.
Central Constructs in Adler's Individual Psychology:
■ What does Adler mean by the term "lifestyle" in his theory?
– In Adler's theory, the term "lifestyle" refers to an individual's plan for life that is developed by the age of 5 or 6. It guides their
perceptions and actions throughout their lives, including their attitudes toward themselves and the problems of life.
■ What are the two important qualities of the goal within an individual's lifestyle, according to Adler?
– The goal within an individual's lifestyle is largely unconscious and fictional, meaning it is not based on external reality but is created
by the individual's interpretation and creative power.
■ How does the individual's goal in the lifestyle arise, and why can identical twins raised in the same family have different goals?
– The individual's goal in the lifestyle arises from the interaction of the need for significance and feelings of community (social
interest). Identical twins raised in the same family can have different goals because their perceptions of their abilities, environment,
and surroundings can vary, leading to different beliefs and goals.
■ What is "social interest" in Adler's theory, and how is it related to an individual's contribution to society?
– Social interest is the degree to which an individual cares about their society and works toward the common good. It involves a
sense of belonging and contributing to others. True social interest is seen in the positive contributions an individual makes to their
community.
■ How does Adler view the relationship between feelings of inferiority and the development of an individual's personality?
– Adler believes that feelings of inferiority are a normal part of life and motivate individuals to improve themselves. These feelings
develop early in childhood when a child realizes their smaller size and weaker nature compared to others. How the child interprets
and reacts to these feelings is critical to their personality development.
■ What does Adler mean by the term "inferiority complex," and how does he view the concept of superiority?
– Adler used the term "inferiority complex" to refer to feelings of inferiority that individuals experience. He views these feelings as
normal and motivating for personal growth. Adler also discusses the "superiority complex," where individuals build a false sense of
significance devoid of social interest, often leading to attention-seeking behaviours.
■ According to Adler, what are the three basic tasks of life, and how are they interconnected?
– Adler identified three basic tasks of life: love, work, and community. These tasks are interconnected because they all involve social
interest. Love requires the wish to contribute to another's betterment, work contributes to society, and community involvement
relies on cooperation among individuals.
■ What are "basic mistakes" in Adler's theory, and what are some categories of these mistakes?
– Basic mistakes are habitual, self-defeating cognitions that hinder an individual's ability to engage in life tasks or reflect low social
interest or excessive power needs. Some categories of basic mistakes include overgeneralizations, false or impossible goals of
security, misperceptions of life, minimization of self-worth, and faulty values.
Theory of the Person and Development of the Individual:
■ According to Adler, how is the pattern of an individual's life typically set, and what are the factors contributing to the development of the
individual's lifestyle?
– Adler believed that the pattern of an individual's life is set by around age 5. This pattern, known as the lifestyle, is influenced by
heredity, environment, and the individual's own creative work.
■ How do children initially perceive their environment, and what role does their private logic play in interpreting life?
– Children form their own interpretations of life based on their observations of the environment around them. These initial
impressions and interpretations contribute to the development of their lifestyle. Private logic refers to the idiosyncratic reasoning
children use, which may lead to mistaken goals of superiority or problematic behaviour.
■ How does Adler view the influence of family on an individual's development, and what term does he use to describe this concept?
– Adler emphasizes the concept of "family constellation" to describe the influence of family on an individual's development. Family
influences include family values, atmosphere, parental examples, and the child's role in the family. The mother's role is to teach
cooperation, while the father's role is to be a good companion within the family and society.
■ What is birth order, and how does Adler view its influence on an individual's development?
– Birth order refers to the position of a child in the family, and Adler believed it could have a significant impact on an individual's
development. Adlerians emphasize the psychological position of the child rather than just the ordinal position. Adler described
characteristics associated with first-born, second-born, middle, youngest, and only children.
■ How does Adler view the roles of parents in teaching social interest to their children?
– Adler believed that it is the parents' responsibility to teach children social interest and cooperation, thereby reducing family egoism.
Mistakes in the family can impact later life, and failing to learn cooperation and courage can lead to problems. The parent-child
relationship serves as a model for other relationships in the family.
■ How does Adler address the influence of gender on an individual's development, and what is the "masculine protest"?
– Adler acknowledged the influence of societal gender biases on development. The "masculine protest" refers to both sexes' tendency to
emphasize masculinity due to the societal perception of male superiority. Girls may transform the protest into feminine means or may
adopt masculine goals. Adler advocated for equal rights for women and criticized the undervaluation of women's roles in society.
■ What are the four types of personalities recognized in Adlerian theory, and which one is considered the healthiest?
– Adlerian theorists recognize four personality types based on social interest and activity level: (a) the ruling-dominant type, (b) the getting-
leaning type, (c) the avoidant type, and (d) the socially useful type. The socially useful type is considered the healthiest in Adlerian theory.
Health and Dysfunction:
■ According to Adler, what characterizes healthy individuals, and how do they contribute to society?
– Healthy individuals possess well-developed social interest and courageously solve life's tasks in socially constructive ways. They
contribute to society by succeeding at life's tasks, forming partnerships, and engaging in socially useful work.
■ How does Adler define psychological dysfunction, and what is the role of social interest in this context?
– Psychological dysfunction, according to Adler, is characterized by a lack of social interest. Individuals who are psychologically unhealthy
have goals of personal superiority and engage in safeguarding behaviours to protect their self-esteem.
■ What is safeguarding, and what are some forms it can take?
– Safeguarding is the defence mechanism against inferiority feelings and discouragement. Forms of safeguarding can include unconscious
psychological symptoms, making excuses, being aggressive, distancing from threatening tasks, and restricting one's possibilities in life.
■ How does Adler view neurosis, and what behaviours are associated with neurotics?
– Adler views neurosis as a failure in life resulting from an individual's inability to confront and solve life tasks. Neurotics display hesitating
attitudes and often evade life tasks. They are known for using excuses to avoid responsibilities and safeguard their self-esteem.
■ How does Adler describe the "yes, but" personality, and what underlying characteristics contribute to this behaviour?
– Adler describes the "yes, but" personality as someone who always wants to achieve but provides reasons for why they cannot.
This behaviour arises from a focus on protecting their sense of power and value in the face of challenging life tasks.
■ What factors contribute to the development of neurosis in childhood, and how does it manifest?
– Neurosis in childhood can be linked to experiences of organ inferiority, being pampered, or being neglected. Neurosis surfaces
when an individual is overwhelmed by a challenging cooperative task that they believe they cannot meet.
■ How does Adler view children with organ inferiority, and what challenges do they face?
– Children with organ inferiority become focused on their bodies and may struggle to see the value of contributing to others.
Comparing themselves to others and negative reactions from peers can worsen their feelings of inferiority.
■ What is the impact of being a pampered child, and how does it relate to the development of dysfunction?
– Pampered children achieve superiority through having others cater to their needs. However, they do not learn how to tackle life
problems and may develop behaviours that seek attention. This can intensify their inferiority feelings and contribute to
psychological dysfunction.
■ How does neglect or being "hated" impact a child's development, and what behaviours can result from such experiences?
– Neglected children may view the world as hostile and withhold trust due to a lack of positive experiences. They may become
rebellious or passively resistant in response to attempts by others to influence them.
■ According to Adler, how does he view the most challenging cases, such as psychotics?
– Adler viewed psychotics, including paranoiacs, as having lofty goals to fend off deep inferiority feelings. Their goals are so high that
they lose interest in others, common sense, and reality. Psychotics withdraw due to being unprepared for life and lack interpersonal
skills and occupational interests. Paranoids create their own reality, politics, and religion due to distrust of others.
Assessment:
■ What are the two types of assessment that individual psychologists advocate, and how do they contribute to therapy?
– The two types of assessment in Adlerian therapy are formal and informal assessment. Formal assessment involves structured methods
to understand the client's lifestyle, while informal assessment starts from the moment the counsellor meets the client, observing both
verbal and nonverbal behaviours.
■ Describe Adler's interview structure for assessing lifestyle. What types of questions are typically used in this process?
– Adler developed an interview structure to assess lifestyle, with different guides for children and adults. Questions covering various life
areas, such as assets, social relationships, interests, and discouraged behaviours, are used to understand the client's perspective and
lifestyle.
■ How is the question "What would be different in your life if the symptom disappeared?" used in Adlerian assessment?
– This question helps the counsellor understand the client's perspective on their presenting problem. A vague response may indicate a
physical basis, while a detailed answer provides insights into lifestyle goals and what the problem is allowing the client to avoid.
■ How does Adlerian therapy view the concept of family constellation, and what assessment techniques are used to understand it?
– Family constellation refers to the characteristics of the client's family, including birth order, parental influences, and family dynamics.
Informal or structured interviews and exploration of early recollections are used to assess family constellation and gain insights into the
client's life plan and goals.
■ How does Adlerian therapy view early recollections, and how are they used in assessment?
– Early recollections (ERs) are memories of the client's early childhood that reflect their current views on life and lifestyle. Adlerian
counsellors use ERs to gather clues about an individual's life plan, goals, and level of social interest.
■ How does Adlerian therapy approach the assessment of dreams? How does this differ from the psychoanalytic perspective?
– In Adlerian therapy, dreams are seen as future-oriented and related to the individual's current problems. Dreams offer solutions to
challenges but may have private logic. Dream symbols cannot be interpreted through fixed systems like Freud's.
Therapeutic Atmosphere and Roles:
■ What are the guiding factors for Adlerian counselling, and how do they contribute to the therapeutic atmosphere?
– The guiding factors are faith, hope, and love. Faith in the counsellor, hope for change, and a sense of being cared for contribute to a
■ How does Adlerian therapy approach the therapist-client relationship? What role does empathy play?
– Adlerian therapy emphasizes an egalitarian relationship where the counsellor avoids superiority. The counsellor uses active listening,
empathy, and observation to understand the client's ways of operating in the world.
■ What role does the therapist play in Adlerian counselling, and how does it align with the client's role?
– The therapist serves as an educator and encourager in Adlerian counselling. The therapist's role is to be active, directive, warm, and
human. The client is a learner in the process, recognizing faulty lifestyle patterns and making choices.
Goals:
■ What is the primary goal of Adlerian counselling, and how does it relate to the client's faulty lifestyle and selfish goals?
– The primary goal of Adlerian counselling is to help the client understand and change their faulty lifestyle and selfish goals. This change
allows the client to achieve success in life tasks and increase their social interest.
■ According to Adler, how does psychological treatment lead to psychological health, and what is the therapist's role in achieving this?
– Adler believed that correcting one's attitude towards others and modifying life goals are essential for psychological health. The
therapist's role is to facilitate fearless cooperation in clients and help them transition from timidity and discouragement to health.
Phases of Therapy:
■ What are the four phases that Adlerians see counselling progressing through, and what are their key aspects?
– The four phases of Adlerian therapy are (a) establishing the relationship, (b) assessment, (c) interpretation and insight, and (d)
reorientation. These phases involve building empathy and trust, analysing lifestyle and goals, providing interpretation and insight, and
working on behaviour change and goal reorientation.
■ How does Adlerian therapy emphasize the importance of empathy in the relationship phase?
– In the relationship phase, Adlerian therapy emphasizes the critical role of empathy. The counsellor's ability to understand the client's
perspective is essential for building a trusting relationship. Adler stated that counsellors need to possess the gift of putting themselves
in the client's place.
■ How does Adlerian therapy approach the assessment stage of counselling, and why is lifestyle analysis important?
– In the assessment stage, Adlerian therapy involves lifestyle analysis. The counsellor asks questions about life tasks and tries to
understand the client's lifestyle and associated goals. Clients' lifestyles are brought into the therapy session, and the counsellor
■ What does Adlerian therapy mean by "private logic," and how does it influence the client's behaviour?
– Private logic refers to the individual's unique way of thinking, interpreting, and approaching life. Adlerian counsellors observe
private logic to understand the client's motives and goals. For instance, a depressed client's negative self-talk might be interpreted
as a strategy to seek attention or avoid life tasks.
■ How can discovering the client's "number one priority" be helpful in understanding lifestyle?
– Understanding the client's "number one priority" is helpful in understanding their lifestyle. There are four types of priorities:
ruling, getting, avoiding, and socially useful. The client's goals and mistakes are linked to the importance placed on these priorities.
■ Describe the interpretation and insight stage in Adlerian therapy. How are interpretations offered, and what is their role?
– In the interpretation and insight stage, the counsellor helps the client understand their lifestyle and why they function the way they
do. Interpretations are usually offered tentatively and in a questioning manner. The counsellor models courage and occasionally
offers exaggerated versions of the client's goals to encourage self-awareness and change.
■ What happens during the reorientation phase of Adlerian therapy, and how does it relate to the success of the insight stage?
– In the reorientation phase, the client, having accepted interpretations and gained insight into their mistakes and faulty goals, works
with the counsellor to establish new, realistic, and socially appropriate goals. The reorientation phase follows the successful insight
stage.
Resistance and Working with Parents:
■ How does Adlerian therapy view resistance, and what are some possible sources of resistance?
– In Adlerian therapy, resistance is seen as arising from a lack of courage to return to the useful side of life. Resistance can
also emerge when client and therapist have different goals, challenging interpretations trigger animosity, or the client clings to faulty
goals while the counsellor seeks to discuss underlying dynamics.
■ How did Adler view working with parents of dysfunctional children, and how should counsellors approach such situations?
– Adler emphasized supporting and encouraging parents of dysfunctional children rather than blaming them for the child's
misbehaviour. Parents often come with feelings of insecurity and inferiority. Adler advised counsellors to create a supportive
atmosphere where they can tentatively offer suggestions to parents.
Therapeutic Techniques
■ How does interpretation play a key role in Adlerian therapy, and how are interpretations offered to clients?
– Interpretation is a central intervention in Adlerian therapy. The counsellor uses collected information to form hypotheses about the
client's lifestyle and goals, then tentatively offers these insights to the client. Adler cautioned against moralistic attitudes and
emphasized the importance of offering interpretations in a supportive manner.
■ What is the purpose of encouragement in Adlerian therapy, and how is it different from praise?
– Encouragement in Adlerian therapy helps clients recognize their strengths and power to make choices. Unlike praise, which follows
an action, encouragement is ideally provided before the client attempts a desired change. It can also combat feelings of
discouragement, offering hope for a better life.
■ How are natural and logical consequences used in Adlerian therapy to encourage responsibility?
– Natural consequences involve letting events take their course, allowing clients to experience the outcomes of their actions. Logical
consequences are those imposed by another person to teach social rules. Unlike punishment, logical consequences are logically
related to undesirable behaviour, emphasizing the individual's choice and maintaining a friendly attitude.
■ Explain the "acting as if" technique in Adlerian therapy. How does it help clients change their self-perception?
– The "acting as if" technique is used when clients excuse their behaviour with "if only" statements. The counsellor asks clients to act
as if the desired change were true, helping them change their view of themselves and practice behaviours they haven't explored
before.
■ Describe the push-button technique in Adlerian therapy. How does it help clients understand and control their emotions?
– The push-button technique involves visualizing pleasant and negative scenes to study the accompanying emotions. This technique
teaches clients that they create their emotions by choosing what to focus on, helping them gain insight into their emotional control.
■ How does the "catching oneself" technique help clients change their behaviour?
– The "catching oneself" technique allows clients to practice identifying and interrupting their unique ways of achieving power or
undesirable behaviour. By catching themselves in the act or before engaging in the behaviour, clients can improve
their behaviour and relationships.
■ How does the use of imagery and creating images help clients in Adlerian therapy?
– Imagery is used to exemplify faulty goals, often humorously. Creating images, like imagining oneself as a certain character, can
help clients laugh at themselves and gain insight into their behaviour and goals.
■ What is the purpose of the "pleasing someone" technique in Adlerian therapy, and how does it influence social interest?
– The "pleasing someone" technique encourages clients to think daily about how to please someone else. This technique can
increase social interest and direct clients' focus toward others. If the client resists, their underlying motivations for symptoms might
become clearer.
■ Explain the paradoxical intention technique in Adlerian therapy. How does it challenge clients to change?
– Paradoxical intention is a counterintuitive technique where clients are encouraged to intensify their symptoms. For example, a
client might be asked to practice their symptoms more to realize their effects. This technique increases awareness of symptoms
and their consequences, potentially making them appear absurd and encouraging change.
Person-Centred Therapy
Basic Philosophy
■ What is the foundational premise of PC therapy regarding human nature, as stated by Carl Rogers?
– The foundational premise of PC therapy is that, given a supportive environment, humans have a natural tendency to be good and
constructive. Carl Rogers emphasized that human beings are inherently trustworthy and capable of positive behaviour when
allowed to grow freely.
■ How did Carl Rogers respond to accusations of having an overly positive view of human nature in PC therapy?
– Carl Rogers acknowledged that individuals are capable of negative behaviour, but he believed that these tendencies arise from
destructive experiences rather than being intrinsic to human nature. Rogers argued that if individuals are in nurturing conditions,
their actualizing tendency will lead them towards positive growth.
■ Describe the concept of the actualizing tendency in PC therapy according to Carl Rogers.
– The actualizing tendency is a central concept in PC therapy. It refers to the innate drive within every individual to grow, develop,
and reach their full potential. Carl Rogers believed that this tendency guides individuals towards positive growth and wholeness.
■ How does Person-Centred Therapy view the capacity of clients to take responsibility for their actions?
– PC therapists believe that clients are self-directing and have the capacity to accept full responsibility for their actions. They view
clients as possessing inner resources and strengths that can be harnessed for personal growth and improvement.
■ Explain the concept of autonomy and equality in the therapeutic interaction within PC therapy.
– Person-Centred Therapy emphasizes autonomy and equality. PC therapists respect clients' autonomy and believe that clients have
the inner resources to guide their own growth. This leads to an attitude of equality between the therapist and the client in the
therapeutic relationship.
■ How does Carl Rogers define freedom in the context of the counselling relationship?
– Carl Rogers considered freedom an important aspect of the counselling relationship. He believed that both the client and the
therapist should be free to explore all aspects of the self within the therapeutic environment. This exploration should be free from
any moral or diagnostic judgments.
■ Describe the humanistic and phenomenological characteristics of Person-Centred Therapy.
– Person-Centred Therapy is characterized as humanistic and phenomenological. Humanistic approaches, including PC therapy,
trust individuals and view them as oriented toward growth and harmonious relationships. The therapy is phenomenological because
it focuses on individuals' perceptions of reality, as these perceptions shape their experiences.
Human Motivation:
■ According to PC therapy, what is the primary motivation behind human behaviour?
– PC theorists believe that the primary motivation behind human behavior is the innate tendency to grow and develop towards one's
full potential in constructive and positive ways.
■ How do PC theorists view the concept of aggression and destructive tendencies in individuals?
– PC theorists do not believe in inherent aggressive or destructive tendencies in individuals. Instead, they see aggression or
assertion as actions that individuals may use to facilitate their growth or achieve their goals, such as asserting oneself to obtain
something beneficial.
■ In the context of Person-Centred Therapy, how does the concept of "organism" relate to human motivation?
– In PC therapy, the term "organism" refers to the whole person or any other living entity. Human motivation is driven by the tendency
to maximize the potential of the organism and to avoid experiences that are detrimental to it. The focus is on promoting positive
growth and well-being.
■ Provide an example of how an individual might use assertion as a means of growing according to PC theory.
– PC theory suggests that assertion can be used as a means of growth. For instance, an individual might assert themselves to obtain
something that enhances their existence, such as standing up for their rights or pursuing opportunities that contribute to their
personal development.
■ Explain how PC theorists view actions like killing animals for food from a motivational perspective.
– From a motivational perspective in PC therapy, actions like killing animals for food could be seen as an aggressive act directed
toward the actualization of the organism. In this view, individuals may engage in such actions as part of their efforts to meet their
basic needs and enhance their well-being.
Central Constructs:
■ How did Carl Rogers use the term "experience" in his theory?
– Carl Rogers used the term "experience" in two ways. As a noun, it refers to everything happening in an individual at a given moment,
including emotions. As a verb, it signifies the process of the person receiving and perceiving sensory or physiological events.
■ What is the "actualizing tendency" in Person-Centred Therapy?
– The actualizing tendency is the inherent tendency of the organism to develop its capacities in ways that maintain or enhance the
organism's well-being. It involves both biological and psychological growth and leads to autonomy and complexity.
■ How does the "organismic valuing process" function according to Rogers?
– The organismic valuing process is an ongoing process of evaluating experience, where individuals measure each experience to determine
if it contributes to growth or interferes with it. People move toward growth-producing experiences and away from those that hinder growth.
■ Explain the concept of the "self" in Person-Centred Therapy.
– The "self" in Person-Centred Therapy refers to the portion of an individual's experience that becomes labelled as "me." This self-concept
consists of experiences recognized as "me" along with the values attached to them. It includes the actual self, ideal self, and experiences
consistent with the self-concept.
■ How does the "self-actualizing tendency" relate to the overall "actualizing tendency"?
– The self-actualizing tendency is an aspect of the general actualizing tendency. It refers to the propensity of the self to grow and maximize.
When functioning well, both tendencies work together, with what is good for the organism also being perceived as good for the self.
■ What is the significance of the "need for positive regard" in Person-Centred Therapy?
– The need for positive regard refers to the desire for love and acceptance from important others. It extends to self-regard, where individuals
also seek to positively value themselves. This need for self-regard is learned through experiencing positive regard from others.
■ Define "conditions of worth" and explain how they can develop.
– "Conditions of worth" arise when individuals perceive that some aspects of themselves are positively evaluated by important others, while
other aspects are not. They seek love and approval from others and deny or distort experiences that are deemed unacceptable. Initially,
these conditions are external reactions, but they can become internalized as parts of the self over time.
Theory of the Person and Development of the Individual:
■ How does the actualizing tendency motivate human behaviour?
– The actualizing tendency is the inherent drive in humans to develop their capacities in ways that maintain or enhance their well-
being. It propels individuals to strive for growth and positive development.
■ How does the infant evaluate experiences according to the organismic valuing process?
– The infant evaluates experiences based on the organismic valuing process, where experiences that maintain or enhance the
organism are valued positively, while those that interfere with growth are valued negatively.
■ What role does the differentiation of self play in the development of the individual?
– The differentiation of self is an outcome of the actualizing tendency and involves developing a sense of one's identity. It leads to the
establishment of a defined self-concept, which shapes how individuals perceive themselves.
■ How does the need for positive regard from others emerge during development?
– As individuals grow, they become aware that certain self-experiences are positively or negatively valued by important figures in
their lives. The need for positive regard from others emerges as individuals seek approval and acceptance for behaviours
consistent with societal expectations.
■ Explain the concept of "conditions of worth" in the context of development.
– "Conditions of worth" are evaluations of individuals' behaviours by important others, which are internalized as standards for self-
evaluation. They emerge as individuals seek positive regard and lead to the development of a conditional self-concept.
■ How can an environment of unconditional positive regard impact individual development?
– An environment of unconditional positive regard, characterized by acceptance and nonjudgmental support, allows individuals to
develop without the constraints of conditions of worth. In such an environment, the needs for positive regard and positive self-
regard are aligned with the organismic valuing process.
Health and Dysfunction:
■ What is the "good life" according to Rogers, and how is it related to congruence?
– The "good life" is a process, not a destination, according to Rogers. In this state, a person is congruent, meaning their perception of self is
consistent with their experiences. They are open to experiences, have an internal locus of evaluation, and trust their organismic valuing
process.
■ Describe the characteristics of a healthy individual according to Person-Centred Theory.
– Healthy individuals are congruent and open to their experiences. They have a positive self-concept, trust their organismic valuing process,
and can freely accept and evaluate experiences without distortion. They are creative, take risks, and live constructively.
■ How is dysfunction defined in Person-Centred Theory?
– Dysfunction in Person-Centred Theory is defined as incongruence between self and experience. When an individual's self-concept is
conditional and does not align with their actual experiences, the actualizing and self-actualizing tendencies conflict, leading to
defensiveness and rigidity.
■ What is the relationship between conditions of worth and the incongruent self?
– Conditions of worth arise when important figures evaluate certain behaviours, leading to internalized standards for self-evaluation.
Incongruence occurs when experiences conflict with these internalized conditions, resulting in subception, anxiety, and defensiveness.
■ How does incongruence impact an individual's behaviour and functioning?
– Incongruence leads to defensive behaviour and rigid protection of the self-concept. An individual's behaviour becomes inconsistent as
they alternate between guided by the conditional self and the organismic valuing process. In severe cases, overwhelming incongruence
can result in disorganized behaviour, resembling psychosis.
■ How did Rogers view traditional diagnostic procedures and systems?
– Rogers had reservations about traditional diagnostic procedures and systems, believing that categorizing individuals into defensive versus
disorganized classifications was more fundamental and useful. He viewed concepts of neurosis and psychosis as unfortunate and
misleading.
■ How does Person-Centred Theory explain conditions like depression and anxiety?
– In Person-Centred Theory, depression may result from a negative self-concept due to excessive conditions of worth. Incongruent
experiences lead to subception, impacting the extent of depression. Anxiety arises from the need to defend the conditional self, due to
subception of incongruence.
Nature of Therapy:
■ How do Person-Centred counsellors approach assessment and diagnosis?
– Person-Centred counsellors do not use any form of assessment and are often against diagnosis. Rogers believed that assessment
and diagnosis objectified clients and created distance between the counsellor and the therapeutic relationship.
■ How did Carl Rogers view the therapeutic relationship in Person-Centred Therapy?
– Carl Rogers saw therapy as an encounter between two equals. He rejected the expert role for the counsellor and emphasized that
the therapist's attitude and philosophy were crucial for the success of the therapeutic relationship.
■ What is the role of the counsellor in Person-Centred Therapy?
– The counsellor's role is to provide a climate that fosters the client's potential. They strive to understand the client's experience while
remaining open to their own experiences in the therapeutic relationship. The counsellor aims to meet the client as a person and
create an authentic, collaborative relationship.
■ How does Carl Rogers describe the counsellor's role in relation to the client's journey?
– Rogers describes the counsellor's role as being at the client's side, occasionally falling a step behind or ahead, and taking leaps
guided by intuition. The counsellor's task is to facilitate the client's journey toward self-discovery and growth.
■ What is the client's role in Person-Centred Therapy?
– The client's role is to be authentic and in touch with their own experience. The client is the guide in the therapeutic journey, and
their ability to express and experience is related to the level of incongruence they are experiencing.
■ What are the goals of Person-Centred Therapy?
– The primary goal of Person-Centred Therapy is to facilitate the client's journey toward reaching their full potential. When the right
conditions are established, the client can experience acceptance from the counsellor and, in turn, accept their own experiences
more fully. A narrower goal is to move clients from incongruence to congruence and reduce or eliminate conditions of worth.
Process of Therapy:
■ What are the three historical stages identified in the evolution of Person-Centred Therapy?
– The three historical stages are: (1) the cathartic model emphasizing nondirective interaction, (2) the emphasis on the counselor's
attitude, and (3) the focus on counsellor genuineness.
■ What sparked the third transformation of Person-Centred Therapy?
– The third transformation emerged when Carl Rogers, while working with a disturbed client, realized the importance of honesty and
genuineness in the therapeutic relationship.
■ What are the core conditions of therapy according to Rogers?
– The core conditions are congruence (genuineness), unconditional positive regard, and empathic understanding. These conditions
create the optimal atmosphere for growth.
■ How does Rogers define congruence?
– Congruence refers to the counsellor's freely flowing awareness of their own experience in the therapeutic moment. It involves being
oneself without a professional façade and being transparent about feelings.
■ What is unconditional positive regard in Person-Centred Therapy?
– Unconditional positive regard is the counsellor's complete acceptance and caring for the client, approaching them without judgment
and prizing their experience.
■ How does Rogers define empathy in Person-Centred Therapy?
– Empathy is achieved when the counsellor perceives the client's internal experience as if they were that person, without losing the
"as if" condition. It involves understanding the client's feelings and meanings.
■ What are the seven stages of the therapeutic process according to Rogers?
– The stages are: (1) lack of awareness, (2) contact and reception, (3) small steps toward experiencing, (4) awareness of
incongruence, (5) increased freedom of organismic flow, (6) experiencing fully accepted feelings, and (7) growing trust in one's
process.
■ What is the purpose of the stages of the therapeutic process?
– The stages represent the progression from incongruence to congruence. Clients move through these stages in their journey of self-
discovery and growth.
■ How does Rogers address client resistance in therapy?
– Rogers recognized that client resistance can arise from reluctance to face denied feelings and interpretations offered by the
counsellor. He believed that if the counsellor provides the core conditions, resistance can be minimized.
Therapeutic Techniques:
■ What is the stance of Person-Centred Therapy on the use of techniques?
– PCT emphasizes a non-directive approach and does not use specific techniques. The focus is on the counsellor's attitude and the
therapeutic relationship.
■ Why did Carl Rogers object to the focus on "reflection of feeling" as a technique?
– Rogers believed that the attitude conveyed by the counsellor was more important than specific techniques. He felt that focusing on
techniques could objectify the client and hinder their self-discovery.
■ How have variants of Person-Centred Therapy evolved to address the lack of techniques?
– Variants of PCT have emerged that integrate directive and active interventions, such as focusing, emotion-focused therapy, and
relational views.
■ What is the purpose of the technique called "focusing" in Person-Centred Therapy?
– Focusing directs the client's attention to the physical sense of their problems (the "felt sense") to intensify their experiencing and
loosen up "stuck" feelings.
■ How does the concept of "pre-therapy" in Person-Centred Therapy differ from traditional PCT?
– Pre-therapy, developed by Prouty, focuses on establishing psychological contact, particularly with individuals who are "contact
impaired." It involves concrete types of reflections to establish contact.
■ What is motivational interviewing (MI) and how does it relate to Person-Centred Therapy?
– MI combines the empathic stance of PCT with Socratic questioning to help individuals become motivated to change. It seeks to
evoke "change talk" and enhance commitment to change.
■ How is Person-Centred Therapy applied in play therapy with young children?
– Child-centred play therapy, based on PCT principles, allows children to express difficult feelings through play. The therapist accepts
and reflects the child's feelings, creating a safe environment for self-expression and self-acceptance.
Gestalt Therapy
Basic Philosophy
■ What is the fundamental value related to human nature in Gestalt Therapy?
– Holism is a fundamental value in Gestalt Therapy, emphasizing the inseparable connection between humans and their
environments, and the unity of physical and psychological aspects.
■ How does Gestalt Therapy define the concept of organismic self-regulation?
– Organismic self-regulation in Gestalt Therapy refers to the process of being in touch with one's experience, encompassing both
psychological and physical aspects of human nature.
■ What is the phenomenological orientation in Gestalt Therapy?
– Gestalt Therapy emphasizes awareness as an end state rather than a means to an end, focusing on the here-and-now experience
and immediate awareness of one's thoughts, feelings, and sensations.
■ How does Gestalt Therapy view human nature in terms of growth and actualization?
– Gestalt Therapy sees all organisms, including humans, as having an innate tendency to grow toward fulfilment and actualization.
The focus is on growth and excitement rather than dysfunction.
■ What is the significance of creativity, spontaneity, and risk-taking in Gestalt Therapy?
– Gestalt Therapy emphasizes being creative, spontaneous, and taking risks as important aspects of healthy behaviour, even if they
conflict with societal norms.
■ How does Gestalt Therapy relate to societal norms and healthy functioning?
– Gestalt Therapy suggests that societal norms have moved away from healthy and natural functioning, causing conflicts between
individual needs and societal expectations.
■ How has the concept of relatedness been emphasized in contemporary Gestalt Therapy?
– Contemporary Gestalt Therapy theorists focus on the inherent relatedness of the human condition and the interdependence in
human life, leading to a relational approach that emphasizes awareness of the subjective nature of therapy, exploration of the
■ What does the concept of field imply in Gestalt Therapy?
– The concept of field in Gestalt Therapy involves (a) awareness of the subjective nature of therapy, (b) exploration of the ways the client organizes
experience, and (c) an emphasis on context, reflecting the subjective and contextual nature of human perceptions.
■ How does the relational approach in Gestalt Therapy emphasize subjectivity?
– The relational approach in Gestalt Therapy underscores that individual perceptions of the world are more important than any single objective reality,
emphasizing the significance of subjective experience.
Human Motivation
■ According to Gestalt Therapy, what drives human behaviour?
– Human behaviour is driven by the need to satisfy both biological and psychological needs, with a focus on regulating the organism to promote
growth and fulfilment.
■ How does Gestalt Therapy view the importance of needs in human motivation?
– While Gestalt Therapy does not provide a specific list of needs, it recognizes the significance of both biological and psychological needs in
motivating human behaviour.
■ What is the key biological need emphasized by Gestalt Therapy?
– Gestalt Therapy highlights the important need for connection to other human beings, reflecting the biological drive for social interaction and
relationships.
■ What does the existential philosophical basis of Gestalt Therapy add to human motivation?
– The existential basis of Gestalt Therapy introduces the desire for creating meaning as a motivating factor for humans, contributing to their pursuit of
fulfilment.
■ How does Gestalt Therapy describe the motivation for self-regulation?
– Gestalt Therapy views humans as striving to self-regulate their organism to promote growth, harmony with the environment, maturity, and
actualization.
■ What is the role of self-regulation in human behaviour, according to Gestalt Therapy?
– Self-regulation involves the process of determining what is beneficial and detrimental for the organism. Humans naturally adapt to changes in the
environment to achieve harmony and fulfilment.
■ How does the innate tendency to self-regulate impact human behaviour?
– The innate tendency to self-regulate guides humans to accept what is beneficial and reject what is harmful, facilitating adaptation to changing
Central Constructs
■ What is the central concept of contact in Gestalt Therapy?
– Contact in Gestalt Therapy refers to the meeting between an individual and the environment, whether external or internal. It
involves various sensory experiences such as seeing, touching, hearing, and moving.
■ How does healthy contact contribute to growth in Gestalt Therapy?
– Healthy contact leads to the assimilation of novel elements, promoting growth and development within the individual.
■ What role does aggression play in the process of assimilation in Gestalt Therapy?
– Aggression is a natural process associated with assimilation, helping to incorporate new experiences into the individual's self,
fostering growth.
■ How is the importance of connection emphasized in Gestalt Therapy?
– Connection with other human beings is considered a significant form of contact, critical for meeting the individual's needs and
satisfying their growth-oriented tendencies.
■ Describe the concept of needs within the context of Gestalt Therapy.
– In Gestalt Therapy, needs are considered incomplete Gestalts that emerge into awareness. Needs become figure, prompting
behaviour aimed at their satisfaction, leading to growth and completion of the Gestalt.
■ What does the term "fertile void" refer to in Gestalt Therapy?
– The "fertile void" represents a state of pure awareness experienced when a need is successfully satisfied, and the Gestalt is
completed. It is a moment of closure before another need emerges.
■ How does Gestalt Therapy view the presence of polarities in human functioning?
– Gestalt Therapy emphasizes the holistic nature of human functioning, acknowledging the existence of polarities such as light/dark,
life/death, and passive/aggressive.
■ What is the significance of contact disturbance in Gestalt Therapy?
– Contact disturbances, also known as boundary problems or resistances, occur when the cycle of awareness is disrupted. These
processes can interrupt healthy contact and awareness.
■ Explain the concept of introjection and its significance in Gestalt Therapy.
– Introjection involves taking in experiences or values without digesting them, leading to a lack of genuine assimilation. While
necessary for infants, chronic introjection can lead to unexamined values and beliefs.
■ What is projection in Gestalt Therapy, and how does it relate to empathy?
– Projection involves expelling unwanted aspects of the self onto the environment. It can be related to empathy, as it allows
individuals to understand others by using their own experiences as a guide.
■ How does confluence differ from introjection, and when can it be healthy?
– Confluence involves a loss of self where an individual cannot differentiate themselves from the environment or others. It can be
healthy in intimate relationships but dysfunctional if chronic.
■ What is retroflection, and how is it related to self-expression?
– Retroflection involves directing an impulse toward oneself instead of expressing it outwardly. Healthy retroflection involves self-
restraint based on rational reasons, while unaware retroflection can be neurotic.
■ What are some other contact disruptions or defence mechanisms mentioned in Gestalt Therapy?
– Some other contact disruptions include isolation, withdrawal, and deflection. These mechanisms affect an individual's contact with
the environment and self-awareness.
Theory of the Person and Development of the Individual in Gestalt Therapy:
■ How did Perls revise the developmental theory of psychoanalysis in Gestalt Therapy?
– Perls shifted the focus from sexual instincts to the hunger instinct in the developmental theory, emphasizing how infants progress
from sucking to biting and eventually develop the ability to thoroughly chew food for digestion and assimilation.
■ What is the role of childhood events in Gestalt Therapy, even though the theory lacks an elaborate developmental theory?
– GT theorists acknowledge that childhood events are important, as events related to frustration of need satisfaction during childhood
can impact an individual's adulthood and create issues.
■ According to Perls, what is the role of maturation in healthy development?
– Perls emphasized that maturation involves the transition from reliance on environmental support to self-support. Children require
both environmental support and love/respect for healthy growth.
■ How does Gestalt Therapy view the process of growing up and dealing with frustration?
– In the process of growing up, children face the choice of either learning to overcome frustration and gaining independence or
becoming spoiled due to an inability to handle frustration.
■ How does Gestalt Therapy define the self and its role?
– The self in Gestalt Therapy refers to the organism at the contact boundary, actively transforming experiences. It is described as
"the artist of life" responsible for finding and creating meanings that contribute to growth.
■ What is the attitude of Gestalt Therapy toward elaborate explanations of behaviour?
– GT theorists have an anti-intellectual bias and avoid elaborate explanations of behaviour, as concepts like "why" and "because" are
considered undesirable in the therapy.
■ How do GT theorists view the influence of childhood events on adulthood?
– Childhood events related to need satisfaction or frustration can persist into adulthood and impact the individual's functioning, as
these events shape the individual's ways of relating to the environment.
■ How does GT theory emphasize the importance of dealing with frustration during growth?
– GT theory highlights the significance of children learning to cope with frustration and overcome it as part of the process of healthy
Theory of the Person and Development
■ How did Perls revise the developmental theory of psychoanalysis in Gestalt Therapy?
– Perls shifted the focus from sexual instincts to the hunger instinct in the developmental theory, emphasizing how infants progress
from sucking to biting and eventually develop the ability to thoroughly chew food for digestion and assimilation.
■ What is the role of childhood events in Gestalt Therapy, even though the theory lacks an elaborate developmental theory?
– GT theorists acknowledge that childhood events are important, as events related to frustration of need satisfaction during childhood
can impact an individual's adulthood and create issues.
■ According to Perls, what is the role of maturation in healthy development?
– Perls emphasized that maturation involves the transition from reliance on environmental support to self-support. Children require
both environmental support and love/respect for healthy growth.
■ How does Gestalt Therapy view the process of growing up and dealing with frustration?
– In the process of growing up, children face the choice of either learning to overcome frustration and gaining independence or
becoming spoiled due to an inability to handle frustration.
■ How does Gestalt Therapy define the self and its role?
– The self in Gestalt Therapy refers to the organism at the contact boundary, actively transforming experiences. It is described as
"the artist of life" responsible for finding and creating meanings that contribute to growth.
■ What is the attitude of Gestalt Therapy toward elaborate explanations of behaviour?
– GT theorists have an anti-intellectual bias and avoid elaborate explanations of behaviour, as concepts like "why" and "because" are
considered undesirable in the therapy.
■ How do GT theorists view the influence of childhood events on adulthood?
– Childhood events related to need satisfaction or frustration can persist into adulthood and impact the individual's functioning, as
these events shape the individual's ways of relating to the environment.
■ How does GT theory emphasize the importance of dealing with frustration during growth?
– GT theory highlights the significance of children learning to cope with frustration and overcome it as part of the process of healthy growth and
development.
■ How does GT view the self's role in the individual's life?
– The self in GT is viewed as a dynamic force that actively transforms experiences and finds meaningful patterns, contributing to the individual's
growth and understanding of life.
■ How does GT theory incorporate the notion of maturational development?
– GT theory emphasizes that maturation involves progressing from reliance on external support to self-support, which is vital for healthy growth
and development.
Assessment and Therapeutic Atmosphere:
■ How does Gestalt Therapy approach formal assessment?
– GT does not rely on formal assessments. Instead, the therapist acts as the assessment tool, observing the client's patterns of contact,
awareness level, and environmental support.
■ What is the central principle in the therapeutic atmosphere of Gestalt Therapy?
– The central principle in GT is the emphasis on the immediate experience of the client, often summarized as "what and how, here and now."
■ How does GT view the examination of the past and future during therapy?
– While GT focuses on the present, the past and future are explored as they are experienced in the present through remembering and planning.
■ What is the significance of the phrase "Lose your mind and come to your senses" in GT?
– This phrase emphasizes the shift from intellectualizing to experiencing the present moment, encouraging clients to be present and engaged in
their sensory experiences.
■ How does Gestalt Therapy balance safety and risk in the therapeutic process?
– GT therapy is characterized as a "safe emergency." Clients re-experience unfinished situations in a safe environment to complete Gestalts and
assimilate experiences.
■ What is the contemporary view of the therapeutic relationship in Gestalt Therapy?
– Contemporary GT emphasizes building an authentic relationship between therapist and client, focusing on the present relationship dynamics
and fluid interaction.
Roles of Client and Counsellor:
■ What is the role of the counsellor in Gestalt Therapy according to Fritz Perls?
■ In Perls's version of GT, the counsellor confronts the client's attempts to avoid self-support and encourages authenticity. Confrontation
was a hallmark of this approach.
■ How is confrontation used in contemporary versions of Gestalt Therapy?
■ Confrontation is less abrasive in contemporary GT. Counsellors promote authenticity and transparency while building a non-hierarchical
alliance with clients.
■ Why is self-awareness important for Gestalt counsellors?
■ Gestalt therapists are encouraged to maintain self-awareness as a diagnostic tool, understanding how their own experiences impact the
therapeutic relationship.
■ What personal traits and practices are emphasized for Gestalt counsellors?
■ Gestalt counsellors are advised to undergo personal psychotherapy, prioritize physical health, and cultivate growthful habits to
maintain authenticity and self-awareness.
■ How is the client's role defined in Gestalt Therapy?
■ In GT, clients are active participants in self-discovery, learning to test therapy offerings for fit, and encouraged to express disagreement or
anger with the therapist.
Goals:
■ What is the primary goal of Gestalt Therapy?
■ The primary goal of GT is awareness. This includes awareness of current experiences and processes, as well as awareness of one's own
awareness.
■ How does awareness contribute to growth in Gestalt Therapy?
■ Increasing awareness, including modifying dysfunctional contact styles, leads to improved harmony with the environment, better
assimilation of needed experiences, and overall personal growth.
■ What is the view of therapy in relation to growth and remediation in Gestalt Therapy?
■ GT therapists emphasize growth, and some therapists believe that therapy is valuable for enhancing personal growth rather than
Central Elements of Gestalt Counselling:
■ What are the three central elements of Gestalt counselling?
– The three central elements of Gestalt counselling are relationship, awareness, and experiment.
■ How does the therapeutic relationship contribute to awareness in Gestalt Therapy?
– The authentic therapeutic relationship serves as a medium for exploring awareness. Client's desires and patterns of dependence
can be openly discussed, allowing awareness to emerge.
■ What are Levitsky and Perls's rules of Gestalt Therapy?
– The rules of GT include staying in the present ("now"), maintaining authentic communication ("I and thou"), using "I" language for
responsibility, and avoiding questions.
Emphasis on Physical and Body Sensation:
■ How does Gestalt Therapy differ from other approaches in terms of its view of the body?
– GT emphasizes physical or body sensation as a source of wisdom and truth, often identifying unfinished business in the client's
body.
■ What is the "paradoxical theory of change" in Gestalt Therapy?
– The paradoxical theory of change in GT suggests that change is accomplished by becoming aware of and accepting one's current
state, rather than actively trying to change.
Therapeutic Approach and Techniques:
■ What is the concept of "creative indifference" in Gestalt Therapy?
– Creative indifference refers to the therapist's stance of not being intensely invested in a specific outcome, allowing the therapeutic
process to unfold naturally.
■ How does the concept of the "field" apply to Gestalt Therapy?
– The "field" emphasizes that individuals should be viewed in the context of their environment. Both therapist and client contribute to
the here-and-now situation.
■ How does Gestalt Therapy approach client resistance?
■ In Gestalt Therapy, client resistance is not fought against; instead, it is explored, encouraged, and brought into awareness to
resolve unfinished business.
■ How does Gestalt Therapy view transference and countertransference?
■ Transference in GT is seen as a clue to how the client structures experience, involving both the client's and therapist's input. The
therapist must be open to being changed and acknowledge countertransference.
■ What are the types of countertransference discussed by Clarkson in Gestalt Therapy?
■ The types of countertransference include the counsellor's own unfinished business, reactions experienced by others in the client's
life, and a confluence-based response where the counsellor experiences the client's feelings or tendencies.
Therapeutic Techniques in Gestalt Therapy:
■ How has the perception of Gestalt Therapy's techniques evolved over time?
– While Gestalt Therapy has been associated with techniques like dialogue and the "empty chair," contemporary practitioners
emphasize dialogue techniques, appreciation of subtle exchanges, and present-focused exploration of awareness.
■ How do Gestalt counsellors approach the use of therapeutic techniques in modern practice?
– Contemporary Gestalt counsellors are eclectic in their use of techniques, focusing on fostering awareness. They often use
spontaneously co-created experiments as a central feature of therapy.
Experiments:
■ What is the purpose of experiments in Gestalt Therapy?
– Experiments in Gestalt Therapy aim to increase the client's awareness by creating new experiences. They are unpredictable and
often referred to as "safe emergencies."
■ How is the idea of spontaneity important in experiments?
– The spontaneity of experiments is crucial, as the creative adventure arises from the moment-to-moment experience of both the
client and therapist.
Therapist Self-Disclosure:
■ How does therapist self-disclosure contribute to Gestalt Therapy?
– The Gestalt therapist may authentically disclose their own experiences to the client, which becomes a point of discussion to
explore the immediacy of the therapeutic relationship.
Dialogues:
■ How are dialogues used in Gestalt Therapy?
– Dialogues involve creating conversations within the counselling session to increase awareness and address unfinished business.
They can be between parts of the self, the therapist, or other individuals in the client's life.
■ What is the historical significance of the "top dog" and "underdog" dialogue?
– The "top dog" and "underdog" dialogue involves the client playing two parts of themselves, the critical top dog and the whiny
underdog, in order to explore and integrate these aspects of the self.
Playing the Projection:
■ How is the technique of playing the projection used in Gestalt Therapy?
– The Gestalt counsellor might ask the client to play the role of a projected person or quality, which helps increase awareness of
disowned parts of the self.
Exaggeration and Reversals:
■ How are exaggeration and reversals used in Gestalt Therapy?
– Exaggeration is used to help clients become more aware of incomplete or stunted aspects of their experience, while reversals
involve acting out opposite behaviours to address underlying impulses.
Dream Work:
■ How does dream work differ in Gestalt Therapy compared to traditional psychoanalysis?
– In Gestalt Therapy, dream work involves the client taking on the roles of dream elements to experience and integrate aspects of
the self-symbolized in the dream.
Working with Polarities:
■ How do Gestalt therapists work with polarities in therapy?
– Gestalt therapists focus on what is missing or disowned in the client's presentation and address polarities, such as strong-weak or
love-hate, through various techniques, including role-playing.
Awareness Training or Bodywork:
■ What is the significance of awareness training or bodywork in Gestalt Therapy?
– In Gestalt Therapy, counsellors often help clients become more aware of their physical sensations, as these sensations provide
clues to aspects of experience that may be blocked from awareness.
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy
Basic Philosophy
■ What core assumption lies at the heart of REBT theory, according to Albert Ellis?
– The core assumption is that people can control their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, and it's
not the events themselves but our view of them that makes us disturbed.
■ How did Albert Ellis respond when his clients claimed that someone "made" them feel a certain way?
– Ellis would reply, "That's really impossible. No one can make you feel almost anything—except with a
baseball bat."
■ How does Albert Ellis characterize his theory in terms of the individual's perception of reality?
– Ellis characterizes his theory as constructivist, emphasizing the individual's creation of reality and the
importance of the individual's perception of reality in determining behaviour.
■ What philosophical tradition did Albert Ellis suggest REBT had much in common with in terms of the
connection between healthy mental processes and happiness?
– Ellis suggested that philosophically, REBT has much in common with Tibetan Buddhism in its emphasis
on the connection between healthy mental processes and happiness.
■ How does Albert Ellis view human nature in the context of REBT theory?
– REBT theory is relatively neutral in terms of human nature. Humans are seen as neither essentially evil
nor purely actualizing, and Ellis identified two powerful human tendencies: the tendency to turn wishes
or desires into absolute MUSTS and the tendency to work towards a better life. Humans are
biologically programmed to be both irrational and rational, self-actualizing and self-defeating.
Human Motivation
■ According to REBT, what are the overall goals that people are assumed to have in various aspects of life?
– People are assumed to have overall goals of "surviving and being reasonably happy when alone,
socially, intimately relating to a few selected people, gathering information and education, working
productively, and having recreational interests."
■ Sarah always puts off studying until the last minute and ends up feeling stressed and overwhelmed. She
wants to do well in school but struggles to motivate herself to study regularly. What REBT principle can help
Sarah understand her motivation and improve her study habits?
– The REBT principle that can help Sarah is that humans should be long-range hedonists, meaning that
they are motivated to obtain pleasure and avoid pain, but they should consider the future effects of
their behavioural choices. In Sarah's case, understanding that regular, consistent studying can lead to
better long-term outcomes and less stress could motivate her to change her habits.
Central Constructs
ABCs:
■ What does the "A" stand for in the ABC model of REBT, and how is it defined?
– The "A" stands for the antecedent event or activating experience, which refers to something that
happens to us and is relevant or upsetting to us.
■ How does the ABC model explain the relationship between the antecedent event (A) and the consequence (C)?
– The ABC model suggests that what makes the difference in experiencing healthy or unhealthy emotions
is what you think about the A event. A is not directly connected to C but is filtered through B, which
represents our beliefs about A.
■ Provide an example of how the ABC model works, including the antecedent event (A), the belief (B), and the
consequence (C).
– A (Antecedent event) - John failed his math exam. B (Belief) - John believes he is a complete failure
because of this. C (Consequence) - John feels depressed and demotivated.
Beliefs:
■ What are the two types of beliefs according to REBT, and how do they differ?
– The two types of beliefs are rational beliefs (rBs) and irrational beliefs (iBs). Rational beliefs are logical,
have empirical support, or are pragmatic and generally lead to mild to moderate emotions. Irrational
beliefs are rigid, demanding musts or shoulds, often illogical and unrealistic, and can lead to strong
negative emotions.
■ Provide an example of an irrational belief and explain how it can lead to negative emotions.
– Irrational Belief - "I must be loved and approved of by everyone." This belief can lead to anxiety and
frustration because it sets an unrealistic and demanding standard for oneself.
Goals:
■ According to REBT, what are some general human goals that people share?
– People generally have goals to survive, be happy, be loved, have a successful career, be comfortable, and have fun,
among others.
■ How does REBT view the impact of thwarted goals on human behaviour and emotions?
– When people's goals are thwarted or blocked, it can lead to antecedent events (A) that result in negative emotions or
behaviours (C). REBT suggests that understanding and addressing these goals and their impediments is
crucial for emotional well-being.
Human Worth Ratings and USA:​
■ According to REBT, why is it considered harmful to make global judgments of human worth?​
– Making global judgments of human worth, such as labelling oneself or others as all-good or all-bad, is considered
harmful because it oversimplifies complex individuals and can lead to extreme emotions. It's important to separate
behaviour from the person.​
■ How can individuals achieve unconditional self-acceptance (USA) according to REBT?​
– Individuals can achieve USA by refusing to make self-evaluations and instead evaluating their behaviour, thoughts,
and feelings based on rational standards. Another approach is to view oneself as a good person simply because one
is alive and human.​
Secondary Disturbances:
■ What are secondary disturbances in the context of REBT?
– Secondary disturbances are additional emotional or behavioural disturbances that arise as a result of reacting to the
primary disturbances in the ABC model. They occur when individuals hold irrational beliefs (iBs) about their
emotional or behavioural responses to the initial antecedent event (A1) or consequence (C).
■ Provide an example of a secondary disturbance and explain how it arises.
– Secondary Disturbance - Feeling shame and guilt after shouting at someone. It arises when the individual holds the
irrational belief that they "must be perfect at all times" (iB), which leads to a negative evaluation (C2) of
their behaviour and subsequent emotional distress.
Theory of the Person and Development of the Individual:
■ According to REBT, what factors influence the development of an individual's personality and behavior?
– REBT suggests that individuals are influenced by both inherited (biological) factors and environmental influences, with
constitutional factors considered more powerful.
■ How does REBT view the role of inherited influences in shaping human behavior?
– Inherited influences include tendencies toward irrational thinking, emotional reactions, and certain behaviors. These
tendencies can vary among individuals.
■ What are the primary environmental influences on individuals, according to REBT?
– The primary environmental influences come from other people, including parents, siblings, teachers, peers, and social
or religious groups. Individuals absorb rules, standards, and goals from these influences.
■ Sarah grew up in a highly competitive family where academic success was strongly emphasized. She developed a belief that
she must excel academically to be worthy. How does this case illustrate the influence of environmental factors on an individual's
belief system?
– This case illustrates how Sarah's family and their emphasis on academic success in her environment contributed to her
belief that she must excel academically (an irrational belief).
■ How does REBT explain the process of individuals internalizing rules and turning them into imperatives?
– REBT suggests that individuals have a natural tendency to internalize rules and standards from their environment,
turning preferential statements like "you should" into absolute demands or musts.
■ Why does REBT emphasize that much of the construction of irrational beliefs happens during childhood?​
– REBT emphasizes that irrational beliefs often develop during childhood because children have immature thinking
processes and are more susceptible to rigid and irrational thinking patterns.​
■ How does REBT propose that individuals carry their irrational beliefs from childhood into adulthood?​
– Individuals carry their irrational beliefs into adulthood by constantly reindoctrinating themselves without realizing what
they are doing, reinforcing these beliefs over time.​
■ Mark, as a child, was always told by his parents that he should be the best at everything. How might Mark's childhood
experiences relate to the development of irrational beliefs in adulthood?​
– Mark's childhood experiences of being told he should be the best may have contributed to the development of irrational
beliefs, such as "I must be perfect at everything," which could affect his behavior and emotions in adulthood.
Health and Dysfunction:
■ What characterizes healthy individuals in the REBT view?
– Healthy individuals primarily rely on rational beliefs, use flexible thinking, accept their imperfections, and have high
frustration tolerance. They balance self-interest with social interest and actively work to change situations when needed.
■ Lisa is a person who generally uses flexible thinking and accepts her imperfections. How does Lisa's behavior illustrate the
characteristics of a healthy individual according to REBT?
– Lisa's behaviour illustrates the characteristics of a healthy individual because she uses flexible thinking, accepts her
imperfections, and likely has a balanced approach to self-interest and social interest.
■ What is the significance of high frustration tolerance (HFT) in psychological health, according to REBT?
– High frustration tolerance means that individuals can tolerate disliked situations in the short term while working to change
them to achieve their desired goals. It's an important aspect of psychological health.
■ How does the REBT view on healthy basic philosophies differ from irrational beliefs?
– Healthy basic philosophies value flexibility, open-mindedness, and oppose bigotry. They prioritize relativistic
thinking and desiring (as opposed to absolute needing) and maintain a balance between self-interest and
social interest.
■ What is the role of acceptance in the psychological health of an individual, as per REBT?
– Acceptance, including unconditional self-acceptance (USA), unconditional other-acceptance (UOA), and
unconditional life-acceptance (ULA), is important in psychological health. It involves accepting human fallibility
and the ambiguity of life while actively working to change undesirable situations.
■ What values are emphasized in the REBT philosophy, and how do they relate to psychological health?
– The values in the REBT philosophy include long-range hedonism, self-interest, social interest, self-direction,
tolerance of others, acceptance of life's ambiguity, flexibility, openness to change, and scientific thinking. These
values contribute to psychological health.
■ What constitutes dysfunction from an REBT perspective?
– Dysfunction in REBT is primarily characterized by operating in the world based on irrational beliefs or an
irrational philosophical system. It involves rigidly raising preferences into absolutist musts and shoulds, leading
to problems like anxiety, depression, and frustration intolerance.
■ John believes that he absolutely must receive approval from everyone he meets, and he becomes anxious when he
thinks he might not get it. How does John's belief exemplify dysfunction in the REBT view?
– John's belief that he absolutely must receive approval from everyone illustrates dysfunction because it is an
irrational belief that can lead to anxiety and distress when his demand for approval is not met. This is a key
aspect of dysfunction in REBT.
Nature of Therapy
Assessment:
■ What is the role of assessment in REBT, and how has it evolved over time?
– Assessment in REBT aims to formulate an REBT case conceptualization. While older sources rejected comprehensive
assessments, more recent approaches may include self-report instruments. The goal remains understanding the
client's beliefs and irrational thinking.
■ How do REBT therapists conduct informal assessments with clients?
– Informal assessment in REBT involves asking clients about their reasons for seeking therapy, listening for As, Bs, Cs,
and other relevant factors such as cognitive flexibility, problem-solving skills, and indicators of secondary emotional
disturbance.
■ Maria comes to therapy, stating that her marriage is falling apart, and she's constantly frustrated with her husband. How can an
REBT therapist use informal assessment to understand Maria's issues?
– An REBT therapist can explore Maria's thoughts (Cs), emotions (Bs), and the triggering events (As) related to her
marital problems to identify irrational beliefs and thinking patterns contributing to her distress.
■ Explain the process of inference chaining in REBT assessment.
– Inference chaining involves asking the client to assume their thoughts or inferences are true and then asking, "Then
what?" or stating, "That would mean..." to help the client identify and reveal their core irrational beliefs (iBs).
■ Sarah believes that she must be liked by everyone she meets, or else she's a failure. How can an REBT therapist use inference
chaining to uncover Sarah's core irrational belief?
– The therapist can ask Sarah what it would mean if people didn't like her. Sarah's response may reveal her core
irrational belief, such as "I must be liked by everyone to be worthy."
■ What are vivid assessment techniques in REBT, and when are they typically used?
– Vivid assessment techniques in REBT involve using emotional and colorful language, guided imagery, photographs,
mementos, and even scripts to help clients connect with their emotions and beliefs. They are typically used when
■ Explain the riskier assessment techniques in REBT, such as rational emotive problem solving (REPS) and in vivo
assessment.
– Riskier assessment techniques in REBT involve re-creating problem situations in therapy (REPS) or conducting
assessments in real-life settings (in vivo assessment). These techniques are used cautiously and with clients'
consent to help them confront their irrational beliefs directly.
Overview of the Therapeutic Atmosphere:
■ Describe the distinctive characteristics of the therapeutic atmosphere in REBT.
– The therapeutic atmosphere in REBT is characterized by the therapist's active, directive, and confrontational
stance combined with unconditional acceptance of the client. The therapist uses humor but avoids excessive
warmth. Empathy and the therapeutic alliance are considered important but not the sole focus.
■ How can an REBT therapist balance confrontation and unconditional acceptance when working with a client who has low
self-esteem?
– The therapist can confront the client's irrational beliefs related to low self-esteem while maintaining unconditional
acceptance, conveying confidence in the client's ability to change, and using humor to lighten the atmosphere.
Roles of Client and Counsellor:
■ Explain the role of the REBT counsellor and how it differs from the personality of Albert Ellis.
– The REBT counsellor plays an active, directive, and persuasive role, teaching the client the ABC model and
helping them change irrational beliefs. The counsellor does not need to mimic Albert Ellis's style but should
focus on applying the theory effectively.
■ What are the key responsibilities of the REBT client during therapy?
– The REBT client is expected to be an involved and energetic student who actively works to change irrational
beliefs, adopt rational beliefs, and embrace REBT philosophy. Clients must engage in hard work and practice to
achieve lasting change.
Goals:
■ What are the primary goals of REBT therapy?
– The primary goals of REBT are to eliminate irrational thinking, associated dysfunctional emotions and behaviours, and
to teach the client REBT philosophy. This includes changing irrational beliefs into rational beliefs, promoting self-
acceptance, high frustration tolerance, and acceptance of others and the world.
■ How does REBT approach the goal of changing irrational beliefs?
– REBT aims to help clients acknowledge their responsibility for their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, gain
insight into their irrational beliefs, and work persistently to change them into rational beliefs. The ultimate goal is to shift
clients' basic philosophies towards those of healthy individuals.
■ Jane has a core belief that she must always succeed in everything she does. How can an REBT therapist work with Jane to help
her achieve the goals of REBT?
– Answer: The therapist can help Jane recognize her irrational belief of needing constant success, guide her in
disputing this belief, and work with her to adopt a more rational belief, such as "I can strive for success, but it's okay to
make mistakes." The therapist should also teach her REBT philosophy to promote long-term change.
Process of Therapy
■ Describe the ABCDE model in REBT. What does each letter stand for, and what is its significance?
– The ABCDE model in REBT stands for:
– A: Activating event (triggering event)
– B: Beliefs (irrational beliefs)
– C: Consequences (emotional and behavioural reactions)
– D: Dispute (challenging and disputing irrational beliefs)
– E: Effect (resulting emotional and behavioural changes)
– F (optional): Forcefully agreeing with the rational belief and applying it. This letter emphasizes the importance of reinforcing
newly learned rational beliefs.
■ Differentiate between inelegant (general) REBT and elegant (preferential) REBT. What are their primary focuses and
goals?
– Inelegant (general) REBT uses cognitive-behavioural interventions to help clients learn rational behaviours and
focuses on confronting inferences resulting from irrational beliefs. Elegant (preferential) REBT aims to change
the client's basic philosophy, focusing on shoulds, musts, and I-can’t-stand-its. Clients learn to differentiate
between preferences and musts and embrace the REBT philosophy.
■ Sarah holds the irrational belief that she must always be liked by everyone. Would an REBT therapist use inelegant or
elegant REBT techniques to help Sarah? Why?
– An REBT therapist would likely use elegant (preferential) REBT techniques with Sarah to address her irrational
belief of needing constant approval. The focus would be on changing her basic philosophy, differentiating
between preferences and musts, and reinforcing rational beliefs.
■ What are the primary goals of REBT therapy?
– The primary goals of REBT therapy include eliminating irrational thinking, associated dysfunctional emotions
and behaviours, and teaching clients REBT philosophy. This involves changing irrational beliefs into rational
beliefs, promoting self-acceptance, high frustration tolerance, and acceptance of others and the world.
■ Briefly explain how resistance in REBT therapy can manifest and its sources.
– Resistance in REBT therapy can manifest as clients believing the therapist is mistaken, finding change too
difficult, or experiencing embarrassment about their issues. Other sources of resistance include unwillingness to
give up secondary gains from symptoms, self-punishment beliefs, perfectionism, transference-like phenomena,
rebellion, reactance, and hopelessness.
■ What is countertransference in REBT therapy, and how can therapists address it?
– Countertransference in REBT therapy refers to the therapist's emotional reactions and irrational beliefs that may
interfere with effective therapy. Therapists can address countertransference by disputing their irrational beliefs,
engaging in self-REBT, and recognizing that countertransference can have both rational and irrational aspects.
Reading Albert Ellis's articles on dealing with countertransference can be helpful.
Therapeutic Techniques in REBT
■ What is the primary purpose of cognitive disputes in REBT, and why might therapists initially assume the client's activating event (A) is
true?
– Cognitive disputes aim to challenge irrational beliefs (Bs) held by the client. Therapists might assume the A is true initially to
understand the client's perspective and delve deeper into their irrational beliefs.
■ Differentiate between realistic, logical, and pragmatic disputing in REBT, providing an example for each.
– Realistic disputing focuses on the factual truth of beliefs. Example: "What evidence supports your belief that you are a complete
failure because someone rejected you?"
– Logical disputing addresses the logical consistency of beliefs. Example: "Does it logically follow that failing one test means you will
always fail tests?"
– Pragmatic disputing explores the consequences of holding a belief. Example: "If you continue to believe you're a terrible person
when you make mistakes, how will that affect your feelings?"
■ How is bibliotherapy used in REBT, and what is an example of a resource that might be assigned to a client?
– Bibliotherapy involves assigning clients readings to support their therapy. An example resource is the book "Dealing with Emotional
Problems Using Rational-Emotive Cognitive Behaviour Therapy" by Dryden, which is written specifically for clients.
■ Explain the concept of proselytizing in REBT, and why might clients be encouraged to spread the word?
– Proselytizing involves clients spreading REBT principles to friends and relatives. It is encouraged because sometimes helping
others with their irrational beliefs can be easier than addressing one's own. However, clients should be warned that not everyone
will respond positively.
■ How are recordings used in REBT therapy, and why are they beneficial for clients?
– Clients are often given recordings of their therapy sessions to study between appointments. Recordings help clients remember
session content, listen objectively to their thinking patterns, and practice disputing their irrational beliefs.
■ Describe the concept of reframing in REBT and provide an example of how self-criticism can be reframed.
– Reframing in REBT involves helping clients see situations differently. For example, self-criticism can be reframed as an opportunity
for self-improvement rather than a negative judgment.
Narrative Therapy
Basic Philosophy
■ What is the fundamental belief of social constructionism in the context of narrative therapy?
– Social constructionism, as applied in narrative therapy, asserts that there is no objective social reality. Instead, our
perceptions of self, others, and the world are constructed through social processes and interactions, particularly the stories
we tell about ourselves and our experiences.
■ How does narrative therapy relate to the narrative metaphor, and why is it significant?
– Narrative therapy adopts the narrative metaphor, suggesting that social reality, including self-perceptions, is created
through the stories individuals tell. This metaphor emphasizes the role of storytelling in shaping our lives and experiences.
■ What role do contextual factors, such as cultural norms and values, play in narrative therapy?
– Narrative therapy acknowledges the influence of contextual factors, such as cultural norms and values, on individuals' lives
and stories. These factors contribute to the shaping of personal narratives.
■ How does narrative therapy incorporate the concept of social power, and what influence does power have on personal
narratives?
– Narrative therapy draws from Michel Foucault's ideas on power, seeing power as shaping societal truths that, in turn,
impact the stories individuals create about their lives. Power dynamics influence the dominant narratives and personal
stories.
■ In what ways is narrative therapy aligned with feminist ideologies, and why is this alignment significant?
– Narrative therapy shares similarities with feminist ideologies in its focus on power dynamics and the political nature of
personal narratives. Both approaches recognize the intersection of the personal and political realms in individuals' lives.
■ How does narrative therapy view the relationship between power and knowledge in society?
– Narrative therapy asserts that power and knowledge are inseparable in society. Those who possess the accepted truth
hold power, while those who deviate from this truth are often marginalized or labelled negatively.
■ Why is it important for therapists practicing narrative therapy to critically evaluate their actions in terms of power? ​
– Narrative therapists recognize that therapy operates within the domains of knowledge and power. To avoid perpetuating oppressive
narratives, therapists must critically assess their own actions in terms of power dynamics.​
■ What is the role of social activism in narrative therapy, and how does it relate to liberating clients from oppressive narratives? ​
– Narrative therapy embodies social activism by aiming to liberate clients from oppressive and totalizing narratives, thereby
empowering clients to voice their preferences and challenge dominant stories.​
■ How does narrative therapy emphasize health and strengths, and why does it question traditional psychological perspectives like
diagnosis?​
– Narrative therapy focuses on health and strengths in clients while questioning traditional psychological perspectives. Diagnosis,
which places the problem within the individual, is seen as obscuring historical and political forces at play in clients' lives.​
■ What values are important in narrative therapy, particularly concerning terminology and transparency?​
– Narrative therapists often prefer terms like "persons who consult us" over "client" or "patient." Transparency and making therapy as
transparent as possible to clients are important values in narrative therapy.​
Human Motivation
■ How do narrative therapy theorists approach the topic of human motivation?
– Answer: Narrative therapy theorists do not extensively discuss the topic of human motivation, primarily because they are deeply
focused on individual clients' unique stories and experiences. They avoid taking a definitive stance on motivation to allow clients
the freedom to create their own meaningful life narratives.
■ Why is narrative therapy less inclined to prescribe specific motivations for individuals?
– Answer: Narrative therapy avoids prescribing specific motivations because it respects the idea that individuals have the
capacity to construct their own versions of a meaningful life. This approach prioritizes the individual's ability to define their
motivations within the context of their personal narrative.
■ How does narrative therapy's emphasis on personally constructed meaning relate to human motivation?
– Answer: Narrative therapy places a significant emphasis on personally constructed meaning as a central feature of human
existence. While it doesn't delve deeply into discussions of motivation, this emphasis suggests that the process of creating
Central Constructs in Narrative Therapy:

■ Stories:
– What is the role of stories in narrative therapy, and how are they created?
– Answer: In narrative therapy, human life is viewed as a series of stories. These stories are constructed over time as individuals connect events in
their lives to derive meaning. Stories consist of events linked in sequence across time, creating a narrative or plot that helps individuals make sense
of their experiences. Stories are influenced by interactions with others and the culture in which the person participates.

■ Dominant and Alternate Stories:

– How do dominant and alternate stories differ in narrative therapy?
– Answer: Dominant stories are the narratives that become the primary or dominant way individuals define themselves. They are often influenced by
cultural discourses and can shape a person's identity. In contrast, alternate stories are the aspects of one's experience that do not fit into the
dominant narrative and are sometimes hidden. Narrative therapists value alternate stories as they can offer different perspectives and possibilities.

■ Problem-Saturated Stories:
– What characterizes problem-saturated stories in narrative therapy?
– Answer: Problem-saturated stories are the narratives individuals bring to counseling, often reflecting their primary concerns or difficulties. These
stories are typically thin and unitary, containing labels and cultural discourses that obscure the individual's uniqueness and strengths.

■ Thinness and Thickness:

– How do thin and thick stories differ, and what significance do they hold in narrative therapy?
– Answer: Thin stories are sparse and lack detail, while thick stories are rich and elaborate. Thick stories often emerge through retelling and
embellishment. In narrative therapy, dominant stories are typically thick, while alternate stories tend to be thin. The thickness of a story reflects its
prominence and influence.

■ Unique Outcomes:
– What are unique outcomes, and why are they important in narrative therapy?
– Answer: Unique outcomes are events that deviate from the dominant, problem-saturated story. They are exceptions to the problem's rule and play a
crucial role in helping clients consider new possibilities. Narrative therapists are highly interested in unique outcomes, as they often become part of
the preferred story or therapy goals for the client. Unique outcomes can be actions, reflections, protests, reconceptualizations, or new experiences,
and they empower individuals to author change in their lives.