2 - Data Analysis

MATH 14
Obtaining and Organization of Data;

Lecture Outline
• Data
• Obtaining Data: Techniques and Methods
• Graphical Organization & Summarization of Data
• Measures of Location (Mean, Median and Mode)
• Measures of Variability
Data
• Statistics is a tool for converting data into information

Data
sheffield.ac.uk
Obtaining Data:
Techniques and Methods
Methods of Collecting Data
• Direct Observations
• Experiments
• Surveys
Obtaining Data:
Sampling
process in which a predetermined
number of observations are taken from a
larger population
psu.edu
Obtaining Data:
Sampling Methods
• Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

• Stratified Random
• Cluster Sampling
Obtaining Data:
Sampling Methods
Simple Random Sampling

• sample of same size is equally
likely to be chosen
Obtaining Data:
Sampling Methods
Stratified Random Sampling

• separates population into strata
Obtaining Data:
Sampling Methods
Cluster Sampling
• simple random sample of groups
Obtaining Data:
Sampling Methods (Comparison)
colby.edu
Obtaining Data:
Common Errors in Data Acquisition
• incorrect measurements being taken because of faulty equipment
• mistakes made during transcription from primary sources
• inaccurate recording of data due to misinterpretation of terms
• inaccurate responses to questions concerning sensitive issues

Graphical Organization & Summarization of Data
Frequency Table/Distribution - a systematic arrangement of values

grouped into class intervals. Frequency tables are used to summarize data so
that the frequency of each interval is clearly displayed and the relative
frequency of each interval can be easily computed.
Class Interval - range of numbers define arbitrarily by the highest and

lowest numbers in the class.
Frequency - the number of times a particular value or phenomenon occurs
Midpoint – average of the upper and lower boundary of a class
Relative Frequency - the proportion of all given values that fall within the
interval. Usually express in percent.
Cumulative frequency - is the sum of the frequency for that class and all the
previous classes
Constructing a Frequency Distribution

• The following data represents the ages of 30 students in a statistics class. Construct a
frequency distribution that has five classes.
Ages of Students
18 20 21 27 29 20
19 30 32 19 34 19
24 29 18 37 38 22
30 39 32 44 33 46
54 49 18 51 21 21
1. The number of classes (5) is stated in the problem.

2. The minimum data entry is 18 and maximum entry is 54, so the range is 36. Divide
the range by the number of classes to find the class width
Round up to 8
3. The minimum data entry of 18 may be used for the lower limit of the first class. To
find the lower class limits of the remaining classes, add the width (8) to each lower
limit.
The lower class limits are 18, 26, 34, 42, and 50
The upper class limits are 25, 33, 41, 49, and 57
4. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the appropriate class.
5. The number of tally marks for a class is the frequency for that class.

Age of Students
Class Tally Frequency, f
18 – 25 13
26 – 33 8
34 – 41 4
42 – 49 3
50 - 57 2

Age of Students
Class Frequency, f Midpoint
18 – 25 13 21.5 (18 + 25)/ 2 = 21.5
26 – 33 8 29.5 (26 + 33)/ 2 = 29.5
34 – 41 4 37.5 (34 + 41)/ 2 = 37.5
42 – 49 3 45.5 (42 + 49)/ 2 = 45.5
50 - 57 2 53.5 (57 + 50)/ 2 = 53.5

Age of Students
Class Frequency, f Relative Frequency
18 – 25 13 43.3% (13/30) x 100%
26 – 33 8 26.7% (8/30) x 100%
34 – 41 4 13.3% (4/30) x 100%
42 – 49 3 10% (3/30) x 100%
50 - 57 2 6.7% (2/30) x 100%
100%

Age of Students
Class Frequency, f Cumulative Frequency
18 – 25 13 13
26 – 33 +8 21
34 – 41 +4 25
42 – 49 +3 28
50 - 57 +2 30 These should
be equal
Bar Graph
• a graphical representation of a frequency table for qualitative data.
• On one axis of the graph frequencies of the relative frequencies are represented.
• The various classes of data are labeled on the other axis.
Histogram
• a graphical representation of a frequency table; it displays quantitative data.
• The class intervals are marked off on the horizontal axis; frequencies or relative
frequencies are marked off on the vertical axis.
Frequency Polygon
• the geometric shape obtained by connecting with a straight line the midpoints of
adjacent class intervals of a histogram.
• The relevance of presentation of data in the pictorial or graphical form is
immense.
• Frequency polygons give an idea about the shape of the data and the trends that a
particular data set follows.
• This can be very useful in comparing different sets of data by superimposing one
on the other.
Line graph
• graphical display of information that

changes continuously over time.
• visual comparison of how two
variables—shown on the x- and y-axes
—are related or vary with each other
Curve Smoothing - process of smoothing the corners of a frequency

polygon so that we obtain a smooth curve, suggesting the basic shape of the
distribution of numbers.
The aim of smoothing is to give a general idea of relatively slow changes

of value with little attention paid to the close matching of data values,
while curve fitting concentrates on achieving as close a match as possible
Scatter Plot
• a graphic display of data points in a two-dimensional plane.
• Each data point represents a single unit of observation on which two
measurements, X and Y, have been made.
• The values of each of the measurements are scaled on the X and Y axes,
respectively.
• Each data point is located in the plane at the intersection of its associated X and
Y values.
Measures of Location (Mean, Median and Mode)
Measure of location - a number that represents the central or most

representative measurement in a set.
Mean ()- the arithmetic average of a set of measurements.

Measures of Location (Mean, Median and Mode)
Median (Md) - the middle number in an ordered set of measurements.
Mode (Mo) - number that occurs most frequently in a set of measurements.

It is possible for a set of measurements to have more than one mode.
Outlier - is a value that is very different from the other data in your data set.
This can skew your results.
Measures of Variability
1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 5
1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 5
1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4.5, 5, 5, 5.3, 105, 205

This is a single number that represents the spread or amount of dispersion in

a set of data.
Range - measures the total spread of a set of data and is computed from only
two numbers.
Range = largest measurement - smallest measurement

1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 5
Variance
• Variance is a numerical value that describes the variability of observations from its
arithmetic mean.
• Variance measures how far the outcome varies from the mean
• The variance equals the average of the sum of all the squared deviations of the
population.
• A deviation is the distance from any single measurement of a set to the mean of that set.
• It indicates how far are the individuals or the observations in a group that are spread
out.
Variance
• Statisticians use variance to see how individual numbers relate to each other
within a data set, rather than using broader mathematical techniques such as
arranging numbers into quartiles.
• The advantage of variance is that it treats all deviations from the mean as the
same regardless of their direction.
Population Variance
Sample Variance
Standard Deviation, Sd
• the square root of the variance.
• This measurement is very useful for describing the spread or dispersion of
a set of data around the mean.
• Measures how far the normal standard deviation is from the expected
value.
• Indicates how much observations or the individuals of a data set which
differs from the mean.
Population Standard deviation
Sample Standard deviation

Height of dogs
The heights (at the shoulders) are: 600mm, 470mm, 170mm, 430mm and 300mm.
Mean (average) height is 394 mm.

Calculate each dog's difference from the Mean

Variance
Standard Deviation
Now we can show which heights are within one Standard Deviation (147mm) of the
Mean:
• So, using the Standard Deviation we have a "standard" way of knowing what is
normal, and what is extra large or extra small.
• Rottweilers are tall dogs. And Dachshunds are a bit short, right?
Coefficient of Variation (CV)
• this indicates the degree of precision with which the treatments are
compared and is good index of the reliability of the experiment.
• It expresses the experimental error as percentage of the mean, thus the
higher the CV values, the lower is the reliability of the experiment.
Coefficient of Variation (CV)
• Basically CV<10 is very good, 10-20 is good, 20-30 is acceptable, and CV>30 is not
acceptable.
• For field experiments CV of 30% is tolerable and for laboratory/ clinical experiments
5% is the limit.
• Acceptable CV depends on the different factors: experimental designs, number of

replications and size, experimental materials, parameters, etc.
CV of population
CV of sample
Next Meeting…
Probability

2 - Data Analysis

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MATH 14

Obtaining and Organization of Data;

• Obtaining Data: Techniques and Methods

• Graphical Organization & Summarization of Data

• Measures of Location (Mean, Median and Mode)

• Statistics is a tool for converting data into information

Methods of Collecting Data

• Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

Simple Random Sampling

Stratified Random Sampling

Sampling Methods (Comparison)

Common Errors in Data Acquisition

• incorrect measurements being taken because of faulty equipment

• mistakes made during transcription from primary sources

• inaccurate recording of data due to misinterpretation of terms

• inaccurate responses to questions concerning sensitive issues

Frequency Table/Distribution - a systematic arrangement of values

Class Interval - range of numbers define arbitrarily by the highest and

Frequency - the number of times a particular value or phenomenon occurs

Midpoint – average of the upper and lower boundary of a class

Constructing a Frequency Distribution

Constructing a Frequency Distribution

1. The number of classes (5) is stated in the problem.

Constructing a Frequency Distribution

Constructing a Frequency Distribution

Constructing a Frequency Distribution

Constructing a Frequency Distribution

Constructing a Frequency Distribution

• graphical display of information that

Curve Smoothing - process of smoothing the corners of a frequency

The aim of smoothing is to give a general idea of relatively slow changes

Measure of location - a number that represents the central or most

Mean ()- the arithmetic average of a set of measurements.

Median (Md) - the middle number in an ordered set of measurements.

Mode (Mo) - number that occurs most frequently in a set of measurements.

1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4.5, 5, 5, 5.3, 105, 205

This is a single number that represents the spread or amount of dispersion in

Range = largest measurement - smallest measurement

Population Standard deviation

Sample Standard deviation

Mean (average) height is 394 mm.

Calculate each dog's difference from the Mean

Coefficient of Variation (CV)

Coefficient of Variation (CV)

• Acceptable CV depends on the different factors: experimental designs, number of

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