Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences

Basics Of Psychological
Processes( PSYC153)

Module 1- Introduction
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Definition of Psychology

• The term ‘Psychology’, literally means the science of

the soul.
• (Psyche = soul; logos =science).
• Formerly, psychology was a part of metaphysics, and
dealt with the nature, origin, and destiny of the soul.
• It was called rational psychology.
• But modern psychology is empirical, and does not deal
with the problems relating to the soul.
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Origin of Psychology

Philosophy Science

PSYCHOLOGY
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PHILOSOPHY
• Quite literally, the term "philosophy" means,
"love of wisdom." In a broad sense, philosophy is
an activity people undertake when they seek to
understand fundamental truths about themselves,
the world in which they live, and their
relationships to the world and to each other.
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SCIENCE
• There are different type of sciences dealing with matter, life
and Mind.
• Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy, etc., are physical sciences,
since they deal with the phenomena of matter.
• Physics deals with heat, light, electricity and other physical
phenomena. Chemistry deals with chemical combinations of
elements.
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SCIENCE
• Astronomy deals with the heavenly bodies. These are
physical sciences. Botany deals with the pheno­mena of plant
life.
• Zoology deals with the phenomena of animal life.
• Physiology deals with the functions of the animal and
human bodies.
• These deal with the phenomena of life. These are biological
sciences.
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PSYCHOLOGY
• Psychology deals with mental processes and purposive
behaviour. It deals with Mind and matter ie,
physiological
• Psychology is the science of experience and telic
behaviour.
• In the contemporary Psychology researches are more
focused to Human Strength, Cognition and Meta-
Cognition
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S-R and S-O-R

 S- Stimulus (Input)Stimulus is the Variable which initiates
activity for e.g.- Lights, Sounds.
 O-Organism (processing)It is known as individual variables (of any
age, sex, educational background, etc, which has great role in
organism for resulting response)
 R- Response (output) Responses are results depending upon the
species and stimulus e.g. Blinking eye is the response to an intense
light(stimulus),Crying in pain, smile while being happy etc..
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Nature/Feature/Characteristics of Psychology
• Psychology is the science of behavior and mental process.
• The word 'psychology' was coined in 1590.It is derived
from two Greek words “Psyche and Logos “ which means
the soul and study or science.
• Scientific psychology began in 1879 when first laboratory
was established.
• Psychology possesses a body of Fact.
• Emphasizes on search for truth. Doesn't believe in
Stereotypes or Superstition.
• Psychology is the combination of Nature and Nurture.
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• It makes prediction about human behaviours.

• The laws of psychology can be verifiable.
• It has its own applied aspects .Various branches of applied
psychology are : Industrial, Legal, Clinical, Educational
psychology etc..
• The Methods and techniques employed in the study of the
behaviour in psychology are scientific too.
• Believe in Cause and Effective relationships. It believes that
every behaviour has its root,
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Goals of Psychology
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1. Biological perspective
The scientific study of the biological bases of
behavior and mental states, very closely related to
neuroscience.

2. The Psychoanalytic perspective:

Originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. This
perspective emphasizes the role of the unconscious
mind, early childhood experiences, and
interpersonal relationships to explain human
behavior and to treat people suffering from mental
illnesses.
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3. Behavioral Perspective:

Behavioral psychology is a perspective that focuses on

learned behaviors. Today, the behavioral perspective
is still concerned with how behaviors are learned and
reinforced.

• John Watson founded behaviorism in the early 1900's.

Watson emphasized the scientific study of observable
behaviors rather than the study of subjective mental
process.
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4. Humanistic Perspective:

During the 1950s, a school of thought known as humanistic

psychology emerged. Influenced greatly by the work of
prominent humanists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow, this perspective emphasizes the role of motivation
on thought and behavior.

5. Cognitive Perspective:
During the 1960s, a new perspective known as cognitive
psychology began to take hold. This area of psychology
focuses on mental processes such as memory, thinking,
problem solving, language and decision-making.
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6. Social cultural Perspective:

The sociocultural perspective maintains that behaviour

and mental processes are shaped not only by prior
learning experiences (the behavioral perspective) or
intra-psychic forces (for instance, the unconscious)
but also by the social or cultural context.
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Early schools of Psychology

• First Psychological Laboratory- 1879, University of Leipzig, German
Philosopher Psychologist- Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)

• Structuralism- Units or elements that make up mind (Wilhelm Wundt)

• Gestalt- mind is a result of a whole pattern of sensory activity and the relationships and
organizations within this activity (Wertheimer)

• Functionalism- psychology should study what Mind & Behavior Do (adaptive) Dewey, James
Angell, Harvey Carr

• Behaviorism- Watson rejected mind and proposed to study only behavior

• Psychoanalysis- Freud said “much of what we do and think results from urges , drives, which
seek expression in behaviour and thought.
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SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
• The field of psychology can be understood by various subfields of psychology making an
attempt in meeting the goals of psychology.
1. Physiological Psychology:
• In the most fundamental sense, human beings are biological organisms. Physiological
functions and the structure of our body work together to influence our behavior.
Biopsychology is the branch that specializes in the area. Bio-psychologists may examine
the ways in which specific sites in the brain which are related to disorders such as
Parkinson’s disease or they may try to determine how our sensations are related to our
behavior.
2. Developmental Psychology:
• Here the studies are with respect to how people grow and change throughout their life from
prenatal stages, through childhood, adulthood and old age. Developmental psychologists
work in a variety of settings like colleges, schools, healthcare centers, business centers,
government and non-profit organizations, etc. They are also very much involved in studies
of the disturbed children and advising parents about helping such children.
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3. Personality Psychology:
• This branch helps to explain both consistency and change in a person’s behaviour
over time, from birth till the end of life through the influence of parents, siblings,
playmates, school, society and culture. It also studies the individual traits that
differentiate the behavior of one person from that of another person.
4. Health Psychology:
• This explores the relations between the psychological factors and physical
ailments and disease. Health psychologists focus on health maintenance and
promotion of behavior related to good health such as exercise, health habits and
discouraging unhealthy behaviors like smoking, drug abuse and alcoholism.
• Health psychologists work in healthcare setting and also in colleges and
universities where they conduct research. They analyze and attempt to improve
the healthcare system and formulate health policies.
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5. Clinical Psychology:
• It deals with the assessment and intervention of abnormal behavior.
• As some observe and believe that psychological disorders arise from a
person’s unresolved conflicts and unconscious motives, others maintain
that some of these patterns are merely learned responses, which can be
unlearned with training, still others are contend with the knowledge of
thinking that there are biological basis to certain psychological disorders,
especially the more serious ones.
• Clinical psychologists are employed in hospitals, clinics and private
practice. They often work closely with other specialists in the field of
mental health.
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6. Counselling Psychology:
• This focuses primarily on educational, social and career adjustment
problems. Counselling psychologists advise students on effective
study habits and the kinds of job they might be best suited for, and
provide help concerned with mild problems of social nature and
strengthen healthy lifestyle, economical and emotional adjustments.
• They make use of tests to measure aptitudes, interests and
personality characteristics. They also do marriage and family
counselling, provide strategies to improve family relations.
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7. Educational Psychology:
• Educational psychologists are concerned with all the concepts of education. This
includes the study of motivation, intelligence, personality, use of rewards and
punishments, size of the class, expectations, the personality traits and the
effectiveness of the teacher, the student-teacher relationship, the attitudes, etc. It is
also concerned with designing tests to evaluate student performance. They also
help in designing the curriculum to make learning more interesting and enjoyable
to children.
• Educational psychology is used in elementary and secondary schools, planning
and supervising special education, training teachers, counselling students having
problems, assessing students with learning difficulties such as poor writing and
reading skills and lack of concentration.
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8. Social Psychology:
• This studies the effect of society on the thoughts, feelings and actions of
people. Our behavior is not only the result of just our personality and
predisposition. Social and environmental factors affect the way we think,
say and do. Social psychologists conduct experiments to determine the
effects of various groups, group pressures and influence on behavior.
• They investigate on the effects of propaganda, persuasion, conformity,
conflict, integration, race, prejudice and aggression. These investigations
explain many incidents that would otherwise be difficult to understand.
Social psychologists work largely in colleges and universities and also
other organizations
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9. Industrial and Organizational Psychology:

• The private and public organizations apply psychology to management and
employee training, supervision of personnel, improve communication within the
organization, counselling employees and reduce industrial disputes.
• Thus we can say that in organizational and industrial sectors not only the
psychological effects of working attitude of the employees are considered but also
the physical aspects are given importance to make workers feel healthy.
10. Experimental Psychology:
• It is the branch that studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning,
thinking, etc. by using scientific methods. The outcome of the experimental
psychology is cognitive psychology which focuses on studying higher mental
processes including thinking, knowing, reasoning, judging and decision-making.
Experimental psychologists often do research in lab by frequently using animals
as their experimental subjects.
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11. Environmental Psychology:

• It focuses on the relationships between people and their physical and
social surroundings. For example, the density of population and its
relationship with crime, the noise pollution and its harmful effects and the
influence of overcrowding upon lifestyle, etc.
12. Psychology of Women:
• This concentrates on psychological factors of women’s behaviour and
development. It focuses on a broad range of issues such as discrimination
against women, the possibility of structural differences in the brain of men
and women, the effect of hormones on behaviour, and the cause of
violence against women, fear of success, outsmarting nature of women
with respect to men in various accomplishments.
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13. Sports and Exercise Psychology:

• It studies the role of motivation in sport, social aspects of sport and physiological
issues like importance of training on muscle development, the coordination
between eye and hand, the muscular coordination in track and field, swimming
and gymnastics.
14. Cognitive Psychology:
• It has its roots in the cognitive outlook of the Gestalt principles. It studies
thinking, memory, language, development, perception, imagery and other mental
processes in order to peep into the higher human mental functions like insight,
creativity and problem-solving. The names of psychologists like Edward Tolman
and Jean Piaget are associated with the propagation of the ideas of this school of
thought.
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Methods of Psychology

1. CASE HISTORY:

An in-depth study of one person.

In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject’s life and history is
analyzed to seek patterns and causes for behavior.
The hope is that learning gained from studying one case can be generalized
to many others.
Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult to
generalize results to a larger population.
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2. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION:
Naturalistic observation is a method of observation, commonly used by
psychologists, behavioral scientists and social scientists, that involves
observing subjects in their natural habitats.
Researchers take great care in avoiding making interferences with the
behavior they are observing by using unobtrusive methods.
Objectively, studying events as they occur naturally, without intervention.
3. SURVEY METHOD:
Survey is a method of scientific investigation in which a large sample of
people answer questions about their attitudes or behavior.
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4. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD:
The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one
variable cause changes in another variable.
This method relies on controlled methods, random assignment and the manipulation of
variables to test a hypothesis.
An experiment is a study of cause and effect.
It differs from non-experimental methods in that it involves the deliberate manipulation of
one variable, while trying to keep all other variables constant.
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• The experimental hypothesis: a statement that predicts that the treatment will cause
an effect. The experimental hypothesis will always be phrased as a cause-and-effect
statement.
• The independent variable: the treatment variable that is manipulated by the
experimenter.
(stimulus)
• The dependent variable: the response that the experimenter is measuring. (response)
• The control group: made up of individuals who are randomly assigned to a group
but do not receive the treatment. The measures takes from the control group are then
compared to those in the experimental group to determine if the treatment had an
effect.
• The experimental group: made up of individuals who are randomly assigned to the
group and then receive the treatment. The scores of these participants are compared
to those in the control group to determine if the treatment had an effect.
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For example:
• Hypothesis: an aspirin a day reduces the likelihood of a heart attack.
• Independent variable: Aspirin
• Dependent Variable: the number of heart attacks.
• The experimental group: would take an aspirin each day
• The control group: would take a placebo, such as a sugar pill, that
resembles an aspirin but has none of the effects attributed to aspirin.
• After a few months or years of pill-taking, the number of heart attacks
would be measured as the dependent variable. If the aspirin-takers
(experimental group) had a significantly smaller number of heart
attacks than the placebo-takers (control group), then the research
hypothesis (aspirin-taking reduces heart attacks) would be supported.
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5. CORRELATION:

• Correlation studies are used to look for relationships between variables. There are
three possible results of a co relational study: a positive correlation, a negative
correlation, and no correlation. The correlation coefficient is a measure of
correlation strength and can range from –1.00 to +1.00.

• Positive Correlations: Both variables increase or decrease at the same time. A

correlation coefficient close to +1.00 indicates a strong positive correlation.

• Negative Correlations: Indicates that as the amount of one variable increases, the
other decreases (and vice versa). A correlation coefficient close to -1.00 indicates a
strong negative correlation.
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Scientific method and psychological Research- Science

basically means a systematic and objective study of a
problem. The scientific word claim for hypothesis. A
hypothesis is a testable.

The scientific method allows us to declare our conclusions ,to

the point where it is reasonable or, factual.

Scientific practice helps psychologists to know that they have

obtained the most accurate and useful knowledge of mental
processes and human behavior.
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Scientific method- Science basically means a systematic and

objective study of a problem.
1. Formulation/Identification of problem
2. Review the literature
3. Formulation of Hypothesis
4. Plan the research design
5. Observation and collection of Data
6. Analysis of data
7. Draw conclusion
8. Replication of study
9. Generalization
10.Formulation of theory and law
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1.Formulation of problem/Identification of problem: Problem

may be simple or complex it should be defined properly in order to
investigate the various fact causing it, otherwise result may mis the
direction effort may be waste.

2.Review the literature: It would be waste of time to repeat the

errors of other research scholars.

3.Formulation of Hypothesis : It is a tentative explanation of a

phenomenon. It is a provision of supposition which is not yet
proved but is anticipated to be correct.
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4.Plan the research design: Outline of : What is to be studied? What

data will be sought?
Where and how they will be collected, proceed and analyzed?

5.Observation and Collection of Data: The formulated hypothesis

will have to be tested by the help of research design.

In psychological investigations we collect data by interview,

schedules, questionnaires, measurement scales and tools
,Observations, Different tests (e.g.- personality test, aptitude test ,IQ
test scales) etc.

The methods of collecting data depend upon the nature of the

research and the resources.
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6.Analysis of collected information/detail/data- After the data have been

collected in order to draw the conclusion data has to analyze properly by
arranging the data in different groups. This requires the classification of the
data.
7.Draw conclusion and testing Hypothesis:
After the data have been collected, proceed and analyzed we have to
conclude.(findings).
Was the original Hypothesis conformed or rejected?
Were the result inconclusive?
What new question and suggestions for further research?
Then the result is tested to the hypothesis, if the result is same then it is
considered as elaborated hypothesis)
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8.Replicate the study: The seven steps above complete a single research
study, but research findings are conformed by replication.(only after
several conformations and no disconfirmations research conclusion be
accepted as generally true.
9.Generalization: After the data have been collected, processed, and
analyzed, we have to draw broad inferences or conclusions to generalize.
Or, The findings are considered to be true for other similar situation.
(in some cases it may not be 100% true). E.g- There is 90% of chances
for relapse.
10.Formulation of Theory and Law: When a scientist has succeeded in
describing and explaining the relation between various facts, he has
formulated a theory. When these facts have been tested and accepted by
the scientist as invariably true the theory may be properly regarded as a
law.
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Sources
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-3iOrvvWiLY
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cLNkKhMI79M
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MLcXU2Wcgy4
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pnB8uh37SWs
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UGAt0wcpyLE
• https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/thescienceofhumanpotential/
chapter/research-methods-in-psychology/
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tIWPmS-g1ps
With regards
Jalendu Dhamija