STATISTICS

What is statistics?

STATISTICS
 is the art and science of
collecting, presenting, analyzing
and interpreting data. These data
may be in sports, business,
politics, education and practically
all fields of human endeavor
dealing with statistics.
Classification of Statistics
a. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
 is the method of collecting and presenting data.
It includes the computation of measures of central
tendency, measures of central location, likewise
the measures of dispersion and variability.
 it also includes the construction of tables and
graphs.
Classification of Statistics:
b. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
 is concerned with higher degree of critical judgment and
advance mathematical modes such as using the different
statistical tools both the parametric and nonparametric test.
This is concerned with the analysis and interpretation of
data in order to draw conclusion and generalization from
organized data.
 this also includes the testing of the significant relationship
between the dependent and the independent variables as
well as the significant differences between and among
independent samples.
KEY TERMS AND THEIR DEFINITION
ANALYSIS
 is the manipulation of the data gathered using
descriptive and inferential statistics.
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY
 is used in getting the value for the median, quartiles,
deciles and percentiles.
DATA
 point to statistical facts , principles, opinions and
variable items of different sources.
DATA COLLECTION
 is the process and methods of gathering information by interview,
questionnaire, experiments, observations and documentary analysis.
DATA PRESENTATION
 takes the form of tables and graphs.
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
 is the tabulation of data of measure grouped with class interval.
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
 points to the construction of bar graph, frequency polygons, pie
charts and pictographs, among others.
GROUPED DATA
 are properly organized and classified data such as the use of
frequency distribution.
INTERPRETATION
 makes clear results of the analysis using statistical methods to see whether
significant differences or relationships exist between variables.
PARAMETER
 is a characteristics of a population.
RANDOM SAMPLING
 involves the selection of samples such that each sample of a given size has
precisely the probability of being selected.
POPULATION
 is the totality of all the actual observable characteristics of a set of objects
or individuals.
SAMPLE
 refers to the element of objects or individual selected from the population.
TYPES OF MEASUREMENT
CONTINUOUS DATA
are measures like feet, pounds, kilos, minutes, and meters.
 these data can be made into measurement of varying
degrees of precision, for example, 1 yard equals 3 feet, 1 foot
equals 12 inches.
DISCONTINUOUS OR DISCRETE DATA
 are measurement expressed in whole units
 examples are counting people, number of objects, number
of cars passing by, number of houses, number of students
and so on.
MEASUREMENT OF SCALES
• NOMINAL SCALES are used as measures of identity.
Examples are classification of individual into categories like
gender: male and female; yes and no answers; in religion: Muslim
and Christians; for political parties: Lakas and KNP; dwelling place:
rural and urban; etc.

• ORDINAL SCALE is used in measurement like ranking of

individuals or objects. Ordinal measures reveal which person or
object is larger or small, harder or softer, responses.
Examples: Strongly Agree, Agree, No Opinion, Disagree and
Strongly Disagree.
MEASUREMENT OF SCALES
• INTERVAL SCALES are numbers that reflect differences
among items.
Examples are scores in a test, grades of students, ages,
blood pressure, Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometers.

• RATIO SCALE is the highest type of scale. The basic

difference between the interval and ratio scale.
Examples: measures of length, weight, loudness, width,
and so on.
STATISTICAL SYMBOL
∑ - capital letter sigma denotes summation of, the sum of
f – small letter f denotes frequencies
F – denotes cumulative frequencies
n – denotes sample size
i – denotes interval
N – denotes population size
X – denotes independent variable
Y – denotes dependent variable
ẋ - denotes mean of the sample
µ - denotes population mean
STATISTICAL SYMBOL
Mathematical expressions:

x=y x equals y
x≠y x is not equal to y
x›y x is greater than y
x‹y x is lesser than y
x≥y x is greater than or equal to y
x≤y x is lesser than or equal to y
STATISTICAL SYMBOL
The characteristics of the populations are called parameters
while the characteristics of the sample are called statistics. Consider
the following different symbols on characteristics, parameters and
statistics.
Characteristics Parameters Statistics
Mean µ, mu ẋ
Standard Deviation Ꝺ, sigma s
Number of Cases N n
Proportion P p
Pearson Product R r
Moment Correlation Coefficient
Variance S2 s2
Summation notation
• Example 1. If N=5 and the following observations are
X1 =2, X2 =4, X3 =3 X4 =5, X5 =6, find the sum of the five
values of Xi using summation notation.

Solution: = X1 + X2 + X3 + X4 + X5
=2+4+3+5+6
= 20
Rounding off numbers
The figures are rounded off to a desired number of places with
significant values.
 If the number to be dropped is less than 5, such as 1, 2, 3, 4,
that number becomes zero.
 If the number to be dropped is greater than 5, such as 6, 7,
8, 9, that number becomes one, and it should be added to
the preceding number.
 If the number to be dropped is 5 it becomes zero when it is
preceded by an even number but when it is preceded by an
odd number, 5 becomes 1, which is added to preceding
number.
LAWS OF SIGNED NUMBERS
ADDITION • Example:
 To add two number having the
same signs, find the sum and +8 -7 +9 +3
copy their common sign.
+3 -6 -2 -9
 To add the numbers having
unlike signs, find the difference __ __ __ __
and copy the sign assigned to +11 -13 +7 -6
the greater number having the
greater absolute value.
LAWS OF SIGNED NUMBERS
SUBTRACTION • Example:
 To subtract two number, change
the sign of the subtrahend from +8 +8 +5 +5 +2
positive to negative and from
negative to positive then (+)-8 (+)-4 (-)+5 (-)-5 (-)+9
proceed to the rules in addition. __ __ __ __ __
+16 +12 0 +10 -7
LAWS OF SIGNED NUMBERS
MULTIPLICATION • Example:
 To multiply two number, having
the same signs, find the product, +8 +8 -5 -5
then prefix the positive sign.
+8 -4 -5 +5
 To multiply two numbers having
unlike signs, find the product __ __ __ __
and prefix the negative sign. +16 -32 +25 -25
LAWS OF SIGNED NUMBERS
DIVISION • Example:
 In dividing two numbers
having the same signs, the +10 -20 -20 +18
quotient is positive: +2 -5 +4 -3
 But for two numbers __ __ __ __
having unlike signs, the +5 +4 -5 -6
quotient is negative
PRESENTATION OF DATA
• In most cases, the data collected from the different sources through
various methods of data collection are generally raw, unorganized and
haphazard.
• To give meaning to these raw data, appropriate tables and graphs are
used.
• Here, we will consider tabular presentation through frequency
distribution and the different methods of graphical presentation.
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Example 1. Suppose a mathematics class with 30 students is
given an examination and the raw scores are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Test Scores Obtained by the Students in Mathematics
48 73 57 50 78 47
79 70 45 65 38 59
30 59 60 55 65 68
32 49 71 35 66 58
32 36 68 59 59 50
 STEPS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
1. Determine the range. (Highest Score – Lowest Score = Range)
2. Determine the number of steps distribution depending on the
variations of scores. Here the researcher has decided to have 5 as the
number of steps distribution. The range is 49 divided by 5; the result
is 9.8 rounded off to 10. Ten (10) becomes the interval.
3. Take 30 the lowest score as the lower limit of the last distribution.
4. Add the interval 10 to 30 equals 40, the next step; again 10 until
completing the 5 steps distribution. See Table 2.
5. Enter every score in the tally column.
6. Provide columns for frequency and percent.
 STEPS IN THE CONSTRUCTION
OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Table 2. Frequency Distribution of the Examination Results of Thirsty
Students in Mathematics
SCORES TALLY FREQUENCY PERCENT
70-79 IIIII 5 16.7
60-69 IIIIIII 6 20.0
50-59 IIIIIIIII 9 30.0
40-49 IIII 4 13.3
30-39 IIIIII 6 20.0
Total 30 100
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
• The data can be presented graphically according to their scales or
levels of measurement.
• The most common graphic presentation are the pie chart or circle
graph, histogram or bar graph and frequency polygon or line graph.
• Table 1. Frequency Distribution of Enrollment by Sex
SEX FREQUENCY PERCENT
Male 150 25
Female 450 75
TOTAL 600 100
PIE CHART NOMINAL DATA
• The pie chart or circle graph can provide an easy presentation of
nominal data or any categorical data.
• The whole circular graph equals 100%
• Likewise, one complete revolution equals 360 degrees
• So in making graph, multiply the 360 degreees by the percentage of
every category.
• Solution:
25% of 360 degrees = 90 degrees
75% of 360 degrees = 270 degrees
BAR GRAPH
FOR NOMINAL DATA
• The bars are constructed far apart rather than connected because
categories are not continuous.
• An example is a marital status.
FOR ORDINAL DATA
• The rectangular bar should be connected to show the degree or
difference.
• For example 100 individuals in the community are classified according
to their social classes.
BAR GRAPH
FOR INTERVAL DATA
• The rectangular bars should be joined to emphasize the degree of
differences among the different steps distribution.
• For example is the scores of 50 students in a History test are grouped
into a 5-step distribution.
 FREQUENCY POLYGON OR LINE
GRAPH
• The frequency polygon is prepared by making a histogram, plotting
the points using the frequency and the midpoints, and connecting the
points by straight lines.
• This kind of presentation can also be applied to ordinal or interval
data because it stresses continuity along a scale.
• For example, the scores of 50 students in a History test are grouped
into a 5-step distribution.