STUDY OF

COMPONENTS
AND
CIRCUITS
Poonam Hingmire 1
INTRODUCTION
• Electronic components are designed to function in specific ways. By adding
components to each other, we can modify the way electricity flows through
an electronic device and how it operates.

• In the designing of any electronic circuit, three most important considerations

are:

1. Circuit components like resistors, Capacitors, Transistors and Diodes.

2. Power sources like dc pow er supplies and signal generators.
3. M easurement and analysis instruments like multimeters
and Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO).

Poonam Hingmire 2
BASIC ELECTRONIC
COMPONENTS
Electronic elements that make up a circuit are connected together by conductors to

form a complete circuit.

a) Passive components: Passive elements do not need any form of electrical power to

operate. They can not generate energy and Passive components cannot amplify or generate

an electrical signal. Examples are Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors.

b) Active components: An active component is an electronic component which

supplies energy to a circuit. Examples are Tube Devices and

Semiconductor Devices.

Poonam Hingmire 3
RESISTORS
• A Resistor is an electronic component that resists the flow
of electrical current.
• A resistor is typically used to control the amount of current that is
flowing in a circuit.
• Resistance is the property of materials to resist the flow
of electricity, and it is governed by Ohm's Law.
• The component which offers Resistance is called Resistor.
• Resistance is measured in units of ohms, which is indicated
by (Ω) omega .

Poonam Hingmire 4
RESISTOR
SYMBOL

Poonam Hingmire 5
RESISTORS
TYPES:
1. Fixed Resistor : Fixed resistors have a constant resistance value.
Different resistor materials are used for fixed resistors. For all
resistor types the used materials has influence on the resistor
properties like the tolerance, cost and noise.

2. Variable Resistor : their general property is that the resistance

value is adjustable. Most variable resistors are adjusted by
mechanical movement (linear or rotary).

Poonam Hingmire 6
FIXED
RESISTORS :
1. Most fixed resistors are carbon resistors.
2. These are low wattage resistors.
3. The resistive material is carbon-clay composition. The leads are made up
of tinned copper.
4. Available in values ranging from few ohms to 100MΩ, having tolerance
5 to 20%.
5. The size of resistors change with their wattages(power ratings).

Poonam Hingmire 7
Resistors: Size
Comparison

Poonam Hingmire 8
RESISTORS COLOR
CODE:
1. Resistors are usually very tiny, and it is challenging to
print resistance values on them.
2. So, color bands are printed on them to represent the electrical
resistance. These color bands are known as Resistor color
code.
3. Color coding is used to calculate value of Resistor.
4. Color bands are printed on the outer body of resistor.
5. resistors have standard colors for the purpose of identification
of their resistance.
Poonam Hingmire 9
 COLOR CODE
CHART
Color Digit
0
: Multiplier
0
Tolerance Resistor color code Mnemonic:
Black 10 = 1 B. B. RO Y of Great Britain
Brown 1 1
10 = 10 had a Very Good W ife who
Red 2 10 2 = 100 wore Gold and Silver
3 103 = 1000
Necklace
Orange
Yellow 4 104 = 10000
Green 5 105 = 100000
Blue 6 106 = 1000000
Violet 7 107 = 10000000
Grey 8 8
10 = 100000000
White 9 9
10 = 1000000000
Gold - -1
10 = 0.1 ± 5%

Silver - -2
10 = 0.01 ± 10%

No Color - - ±Po2o0na mire 10

%m Hing
COLOR BANDS OF
RESISTOR :

Poonam Hingmire 11
 DETERMINING THE VALUE
OF THE COLOR CODED
•RESISTOR
Hold the resistor.
• Look for the 3 colors which they are near on each
other.
• Place it on your left side.

Correct

Poonam Hingmire 12
RESISTOR COLOR
CODE:

Copy the Copy the N umber of M inimum &

digit digit zero/s M aximum
value
13
A C TU A L VA LUPooEnam
 COLOR CODE FOR 4 BAND
RESISTOR :

• coded bands being read from left-to-right as follows:

1st Digit, 2 nd Digit, M ultiplier, Tolerance = Color, Color x 10 co l o r Tolerance in O hm’ s

(Ω)

Yellow Violet Red = 4 7 2 = 4 7 x 102 = 4700Ω or 4.7 kΩ ± 5%

Poonam Hingmire 14
THE COLOR CODED
RESISTOR
• The Forth band is used to determine the percentage tolerance of
the resistor.
• Tolerance (Gold) = ± 5%
• Tolerance of the resistor is also an important property
to consider.
• A 100Ω resistor with 10% tolerance, means its value can be
any fixed value between 90 to 110 ohms.
• Ifresistor has no fourth tolerance band (N o Color) then
the default tolerance would be ± 20%.
Poonam Hingmire 15
Example
1:

Band colors in
order RED RED BLACK GOLD

Digit 0
representation 10

Min : = Ω Max :
Value
= Ω

Poonam Hingmire
16
Example
1:

Band colors in RED RED BLACK GOLD

order
Digit
representation
2 2 0
10 = 1 ±5%

= 22 X 1 ± 5 % Min : 22- 1.1= 20.9 Ω

Value = 22 Ω ±5% Max : 22+ 1.1= 23.1 Ω

Tolerance= Value of resistor × v alue of tolerance band = 22 Ω × 5% = 1.1 Ω

The 22 Ω resistor with a tolerance value of 1.1 Ω could range from the actual value as much as 23.1
Ω to as little as 20.9 Ω.
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16
Example 2:

Band colors in RED

order RED GREEN GOLD

Digit
representation

Min :
Value Max :

Poonam Hingmire
17
Example
2:

Band colors in RED

order RED GREEN GOLD

Digit
representation 2 5 102 = 100 ±5%

= 25 X 100 ± 5 % Min : 2.375 KΩ

Value = 2500 Ω ± 5 % = 2.5K Ω ± 5 % Max : 2.625 KΩ

Tolerance=Value of resistor × value of tolerance band = 2.5K Ω × 5% = 1.25 Ω

The 2.5K Ω resistor with a tolerance value of 1.25 Ω could range from the actual value as much
as 2.625 KΩ to as little as 2.375 KΩ.

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17
Example
3:

Band colors B ROW N BLACK RED GOLD

in order

Digit
representation

Value

Poonam Hingmire 20
Example
3:

Band colors GOLD

BR O W N BLACK RED
in order

Digit representation 1 0 2
10 = 100 ±5%
= 10 X 100 ± 5 % Min : 950 Ω
Value
= 1000 Ω ± 5 % = 1K Ω ±5% Max : 1050 Ω

Tolerance=Value of resistor × value of tolerance band = 1000 Ω × 5% = 50 Ω

The 1000 Ω resistor with a tolerance value of 50 Ω could range from the actual value as
much as 1050 Ω to as little as 950 Ω Poonam Hingmire 21
Example
4:
V IO LE G REEN YELLO W G O LD
T
Band colors in
order

Digit
representation

Value

Poonam Hingmire 22
Example
4:
V IO LE G REEN YELLO W G O LD
T
Band colors in
VIOLET GREEN YELLOW GOLD
order

Digit
7 5 104 = 10000 ±5%
representation
= 75 X 10000 ± 5 % Min : 712.5 K
Value
Ω
= 750000 Ω ± 5 % = 750 K Ω ± 5% Max : 787.5 K Ω
Tolerance=Value of resistor × value of tolerance band = 750 KΩ × 5% = 37.5 K Ω
The 750 K Ω resistor with a tolerance value of 37.5K Ω could range from the actual value as
much as 787.5 K Ω to as little as 712.5 K Ω
Poonam Hingmire 23
Example
5:

O RA N G E BRO W N SILVER G O LD

Band colors in
order

Digit
representation

Value

Poonam Hingmire 20
Example
5:

O RA N G E BRO W N SILVER G O LD

Band colors in ORANGE BROWN SILVER GOLD

order

Digit 3 1 10-2 = 0.01 ±5%

representation

Value = 31 X 0.01 ± 5 % Min : 0.2945 Ω

= 0.31 Ω ± 5% (0.0155) Max : 0.3255 Ω

Poonam Hingmire 20
Example
6:

O RA NGE G O LD
ORANGE B R O W N

Band colors in
order

Digit
representation

Value

Poonam Hingmire 26
Example
6:

O RA NGE G O LD
ORANGE B R O W N

Band colors in
ORANGE ORANGE BROWN GOLD
order

Digit
3 3 1
10 = 10 ±5%
representation

Value = 33 X 10 ± 5 % Min : 313.5 Ω

= 330 Ω ± 5 % (16.5) Max : 346.5 Ω
Poonam Hingmire 27
Example
7:

YELLO W ORANGE
ORANGE GOLD

Band colors in
order

Digit
representation

Value

Poonam Hingmire 28
Example
7:

YELLO W ORANGE
ORANGE GOLD

Band colors in
YELLOW ORANGE ORANGE GOLD
order

Digit
4 3 3
10 = 1000 ±5%
representation

= 43 X 1000 ± 5 % Min : 40.85K Ω

Value = 43000 Ω ± 5 % = 43KΩ ± 5 % (2.15) Max : 45.15K Ω
Poonam Hingmire 29
Example
8:

BRO W N RED G REEN G O LD

Band colors in
order

Digit
representation

Value

Poonam Hingmire 30
Example
8:

BRO W N RED G REEN G O LD

Band colors in
BROWN RED GREEN GOLD
order

Digit
1 2 5
10 = 100000 ±5%
representation

= 12 X 100000 ± 5 % Min : 1140 K Ω

Value = 1200000 Ω ± 5 % = 1200KΩ ± 5 % (60) Max : 1260 K Ω
Poonam Hingmire 31
Example
9:

G REEN SILVE
BLU E YELLO W
R

Band colors in
order

Digit
representation

Value

Poonam Hingmire 32
Example
9:

G REEN SILVE
BLU E YELLO W
R

Band colors in
GREEN BLUE YELLOW SILVER
order

Digit
5 6 4
10 = 10000 ± 10%
representation

= 56 X 10000 ± 10 % Min : 504 K Ω

Value = 560000 Ω ± 10 % = 560KΩ ± 10 % (56) Max : 616 K Ω
Poonam Hingmire 33
Example
10:

O RA NGE G O LD
W H ITE BRO W N

Band colors in
order

Digit
representation

Value
Poonam Hingmire 34
Example
10:

O RA NGE G O LD
W H ITE BRO W N

Band colors in
ORANGE WHITE BROWN GOLD
order

Digit
3 9 1
10 = 10 ± 5%
representation

= 39 X 10 ± 5 % Min : 370.5 Ω
Value = 390 Ω ± 5 % (19.5) Max : 409.5 K Ω
Poonam Hingmire 35
 Resistor color
•code:
REVERSE
VA LU CO LO R
E BA N DS
Example 1 :
350 OHMS ±5% = 350 Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
3 5 0 ± 5%
representatio
n
Band colors in N o of 0’s =1
order
ORANGE GREEN BROWN GOLD
Poonam Hingmire 36
 Resistor color
code:
VA LU E CO LO R
BA N DS

Example 2 :

10 Ω ± 5% = 10 Ω
st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
1 0 1 ± 5%
representatio
n
Band colors in
order
Poonam Hingmire 37
 Resistor color
code:
VA LU E CO LO R
BA N DS

Example 2 :

10 Ω ± 5% = 10 Ω
st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
1 0 1 ± 5%
representatio
n
Band colors in N o of 0’s =0
order
Brown Black Black gold
Poonam Hingmire 38
 Resistor color
code:
VA LU E CO LO R
BA N DS
Example 3 :

850,000 Ω ± 10%= 850 K Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
8 5 10000 ± 10%
representatio
n
Band colors in
order
Poonam Hingmire 39
 Resistor color
code:
VA LU E CO LO R
BA N DS
Example 3 :

850,000 Ω ± 10%= 850 K Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
8 5 10000 ± 10%
representatio
n
Band colors in N o of 0’s =4
order
gray green yellow silver
Poonam Hingmire 40
 Resistor color
code:
VA LU E CO LO R
BA N DS
Example 4 :

6500 Ω ± 5%= 6.5 K Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
6 5 100 ± 5%
representatio
n
Band colors in
order
Poonam Hingmire 41
 Resistor color
code:
VA LU E CO LO R
BA N DS
Example 4 :

6500 Ω ± 5%= 6.5 K Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
6 5 100 ± 5%
representatio
n
Band colors in N o of 0’s =2
order
Blue Green red gold
Poonam Hingmire 42
 Resistor color
code:
VA LU E CO LO R
BA N DS

Example 5 :

5.3 Ω ± 5%= 5.3 Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
5 3 0.1 ± 5%
representatio
n
Band colors in
order
Poonam Hingmire 43
 Resistor color
code:
VA LU E CO LO R
BA N DS

Example 5 :

5.3 Ω ± 5%= 5.3 Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
5 3 0.1 ± 5%
representatio
n
Band colors in
order
Poonam Hingmire 44
 Resistor color
code:
VA LU E CO LO R
BA N DS

Example 6 :

230 Ω ± 5%= 230 Ω

st nd
1 DIGIT 2 DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
Digit
2 3 10 ± 5%
representatio
n
Band colors in N o of 0’s =1
order
Red orange Brown gold
Poonam Hingmire 45
 FIXED RESISTOR: WIRE WOUND
RESISTOR
• It uses a resistance wire, such as
nichrome.
• These resistors are created by winding a
length of resistive wire such as nichrome
on to a round, hollow porcelain or
ceramic core.
• The ends of the winding are attached to
• metal terminals inserted
This assembly is coatedin the
withcore.ename
containing powdered glass. It l is
heated. then
Poonam Hingmire 46
 FIXED RESISTOR: WIRE WOUND
RESISTOR
• This coating is very smooth and
gives mechanical protection to the
winding.
• It also helps in conducting heat
aw ay from the unit quickly.
• The w attage of wire wound resistor
is high, it can be about 200w.
• The range of these resistors are from
1Ω to 100 KΩ.

Poonam Hingmire 47
VARIABLE
RESISTOR
Symbol of Variable
Resistor
• A resistor whose resistance value can be adjusted as per
requirement is called as Variable Resistor.
• The device, which not only restricts the flow of electric current
but also control (increase and decrease) the flow of electric
current is called variable resistor.
• When we vary the resistance of a variable resistor to a higher
resistance value, the electric current flowing through the variable
resistor will decrease and vice a versa.
Poonam Hingmire 48
VARIABLE
RESISTOR
Symbol of Variable Resistor

• The variable resistor is a resistor that controls (increase or

decrease) the flow of electric current when we vary or change its
resistance.
• In other words, when we vary the resistance of the variable
resistor, the electric current flowing through it will increase or
decrease.
• The two most common used variable resistors
are Rheostat and Potentiometer.
Poonam Hingmire 49
 VARIABLE RESISTOR :
• POTENTIOMETER
A potentiometer (also known as a POT)
is defined as a 3 terminal variable resistor
in which the resistance is manually
varied to control the flow of electric
• current.
A potentiometer acts as an adjustable Symbol
voltage divider. Potentiometer Resistor
• A potentiometer is a manually adjustable
variable resistor with 3 terminals.
• Two terminals are connected to both
ends of a resistive element, and the third
terminal connects to a sliding contact,
called a wiper, moving over the resistive
element.
• The position of the wiper determines the
output voltage of the potentiometer.
Poonam Hingmire 50
Poonam Hingmire 51
 VARIABLE RESISTOR :
• RHEOSTATS
A rheostat is a variable resistor which
is used to control current flowing in
circuit.
a Symbol

• They are able to vary the resistance in a

circuit without interruption.
• The construction is very similar to
the construction of a potentiometers. Rotary
Rheostat
• It uses only two connections, even
when
3 terminals (as in a potentiometer)
are present.
• The first connection is made to one end
Linear Rheostat
of the resistive element and the other
connection to the wiper (sliding contact). 3
8
 VARIABLE RESISTOR :
•RHEOSTATS
These rheostats have a linear
resistive path.
Linear Rheostat
• The sliding terminal slides over this
path.
• There are two fixed terminals
however only one of the two is
used.
• The other terminal is connected to
the
slider.
• These are mostly used in
laboratory applications.
• M ostly wire-wound resistive path along
a linear cylinder shaped material, is
Poonam Hingmire 53
 CAPACITO
•R Capacito is basically stor
r meantto (or e
electrons electrical
release them whenever and
• Capacitors
desired. are simple passive device that
energy)
can store an electrical charge on their
plates when connected to a voltage
source. CAPACITO
• A component which has the ability or R

“capacity” to store energy in the form of

an electrical charge producing a
potential difference (Static Voltage)
across its plates, much like a small
rechargeable battery.
Poonam Hingmire 54
 The Capacitance of a
• Capacitor
Capacitance is the electrical property of a
capacitor and is the measure of a capacitors
ability to store an electrical charge onto its
two plates.
• Unit of capacitance
being
• Note that (abbreviated
the Farad capacitance, CtoisF).
always positive in C
value and has no negative units.
• By applying a voltage to a capacitor and
measuring the charge on the plates, the ratio
of the charge Q to the voltage V will give
the capacitance value of the capacitor and is
therefore given as: C = Q/V
• quantity of charge on the plates as: CAPACITOR
WORKING
Q = CxV Poonam
Hingmire
41
 CAPACITO
• AR capacitor consists of tw o or more
parallel
conductive (metal) plates which are not
connected or touching other but
electrically
each separated either by air
, or by are
some
form of a good insulating material such as waxed
paper, mica, ceramic, plastic or some form of a
liquid gel as used in electrolytic capacitors.
• The insulating layer between a capacitors plates
is commonly called the Dielectric.
• There are two types of electrical
charge, a
positive charge in the form of Protons
and a negative charge in the form of
Electrons.
• When a DC voltage is placed across a capacitor,
the positive (+ve) charge quickly accumulates on CAPACITOR
one plate while a corresponding and opposite
Poonam
WORKING
56
negative (-ve) charge accumulates on the other
Hingmire
 CAPACITOR
UNIT
• Farad is a very large unit of measurement to use on its own so sub-
multiples of the Farad are generally used such as micro-farads, nano-
farads and pico-farads.

• Standard U nits of Capacitance

• Microfarad (μF) 1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F

• Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F

• Picofarad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-

Poonam 57
12 Hingmire
TYPES OF
CAPACITOR
• WHAT AFFECTS THE CAPACITORS ABITY TO STORE

CHARGES?

1. AREA

2. DISTAN CE BETW EEN TH E PLATES

3. DIELECTRIC
Poonam 58
Hingmire
FACTORS AFFECTING
CAPACITOR
1. AREA

Poonam 59
Hingmire
FACTORS AFFECTING
CAPACITOR
2. DISTANCE BETWEEN THE PLATES

Poonam 60
Hingmire
FACTORS AFFECTING
CAPACITOR
3. DIELECTRIC

• The presence of the dielectric

material weakens the electric
field between the plates.
• So V is reduced.
• Since C= Q/V and Q=CV
• C is increased for fixed Q.
Poonam 61
Hingmire
TYPES OF
CAPACITOR
1. MICA CAPACITOR
2. CERAMIC CAPACITOR
3. PAPER CAPACITOR
4. ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR
5. VARIABLE CAPACITOR

Poonam 62
Hingmire
MICA CAPACITOR

Poonam 63
Hingmire
CERAMIC CAPACITOR

Poonam 64
Hingmire
PAPER
CAPACITOR

Poonam 65
Hingmire
ELECTROLYTIC
CAPACITOR

Poonam 66
Hingmire
VARIABLE
CAPACITOR

Poonam 67
Hingmire
 INDUCTO
ItRis a two terminal component which stores energy in
• An Inductor is a passive electrical component.
•
its magnetic fields.
• It is also referred as coil or choke.
• It blocks any changes in current flowing through it.
• The inductor is characterized by the value of inductance
which is the ratio of voltage (EMF) and current change
inside the coil. L
• If an electric current flows through this coil of wire it symb
produces a magnetic field around it. ol
• The strength of the magnetic field induced by the
electric
current flowing around the central core depends on
the
type of material of the core, the number of coils of
symbol the Poonam
Hingmire
54
 INDUCTOR
• WORKING
when current is applied through an Inductor,
it develops magnetic field around it.
• Energy applied to an Inductor is stored in
the form of M agnetic field.
• The direction of Magnetic field
developed
will be in opposite to the direction of flow of
current.
• Therefore Inductors resist sudden
change in current flowing through it.
• This ability of Inductor is termed
as
Inductance and every Inductor will have
some
inductance in it.
• This is given by the symbol L and measured
 TYPES OF
INDUCTOR
1. A ir Core
Inductors
• In this type of inductor, core is completely .
absent
• These inductors offer high reluctance path for the
Air core Inductor Symbol
magnetic field, hence less inductance.
• The air core inductors have larger coils to
produce
higher field densities.
• These are used in high frequency
applications
Poonam
Hingmire
Air core Inductor
 TYPES OF
INDUCTOR
1. Iron-Core Inductors

• These Inductors have Ferromagnetic

materials, such as ferrite or iron, as the core
material.
• The
increase usage
of of such due
inductance, coreto materials
their high helps in Iron-core Inductor
the
magnetic Symbol

permeability.
• Permeability measures the ability of supporting
the formation of magnetic fields within the
Iron-core Inductor
materials Poonam
Hingmire
 TRANSFORMER
• AStransformer is an electrical device which, by
the principles of electromagnetic induction,
transfers electrical energy from one electric
circuit to another, without changing the
frequency.
• The energy transfer usually takes place with a
change of voltage and current.
• Transformers either increases or decreases AC
voltage.
• It consists of a pair of insulated wire
wound
around a magnetic core.
• The winding to which we connect the voltage
or current to be converted is called the primary
winding and the output winding isPoonamcalled
Hingmire
the SYMBOL
72
secondary winding.
 TRANSFORMER
•
S
The transformer consists of
wound on a magnetic core.
two windings

• The purpose of having a core is because air is

not a very good supporter of magnetic fields,
so having a magnetic core increases the
magnetic field for a given amount of current
flowing through one winding, which in turn
creates a stronger current in the other,
increasing the overall efficiency of the device.
• When a current passes through the primary, a
magnetic field is set up in the core and is
confined mostly to the core.
• This magnetic field passes through the middle
of the secondary and hence induces a current
in the other by the law of mutual induction. WORKING
Poonam Hingmire 73
Types of
Transformers
• When constructing a transformer, it becomes very important to
specify the type of transformer as either step up or step down as this
determines the number of turns that will exist in the primary or
secondary coil.

• Majorly there are two types of voltage transformers;

1. Step D own Transformers

2. S t e p U p T r a ns for m e r s

Poonam Hingmire 74
 STEP DOWN
TRANSFORMERS

• A transformer in which the output (secondary) voltage is less than its input (primary)
voltage is called a step-down transformer.
• The number of turns on the primary of the transformer is greater than the turn on the secondary
of the transformer, i.e., T2 < T1.
• It is made up of two or more coil wound on the iron core of the transformer.
• It works on the principle of magnetic induction between the coils.
• The voltage applied to the primary of the coil magnetize the iron core which induces
the secondary windings of the transformer.
• Thus the voltage transforms from primary to the secondary winding of the transformer.
Poonam Hingmire 75
 STEP UP
TRANSFORMERS

• A transformer in which the output (secondary) voltage is greater than its input (primary)
voltage is called a step-up transformer.
• It decreases the output current for keeping the input and output power of the system equal.
• The E1 and E2 are the voltages, and T1 and T2 are the number of turns on the primary
and
secondary winding of the transformer.
• The number of turns on the secondary of the transformer is greater than that of the primary, i.e.,
T2 > T1.
• The primary winding of the step-up transformer is made up of thick insulated copper wire
because the low magnitude current flowsPoonam
through
Hingmireit. 76
Semi Conductor
Components
Definations:
⚫Semi-Conductor: is a device that has the resistance of an insulator and the conduction of
a conductor. Most devices are made up of Silicon or Germanium.

⚫Doping: the process of adding impurities to the device to increase the number of free

current carriers.

⚫Current carriers: Majority carriers are the predominate carriers in the semi-conductor
material.

⚫If it is N -Type material (Arsenic) then it is electrons and negative.

⚫If it is P-Type material (Aluminum) then it is holes and positive.

⚫Recombination: Excess electronics fall back into their perspective orbits and limit current
flow. Poonam Hingmire 77
Semi Conductor Components
• Semiconductors are tetravalent atoms known as Intrinsic semiconductors.
• Their conductivity lies between conductors and insulators.
• They are prepared by adding impurity atoms to form P-type and N-type
semiconductors. The process of adding impurity is known as doping.
• The doped semiconductors are known as Extrinsic semiconductors.
• In semiconductors current flows due to motion of two types of charges i.e.
Electrons and Holes.
N-TYPE & P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
 Diod
e switch for current.
• Diode is a semiconductor device that essentially acts as a
one-way
• It allows current to flow easily in one direction, but
severely restricts current from flowing in the opposite
direction.
• Diodes are also known as rectifiers because they change
alternating current (ac) into pulsating direct current (dc).
• Diodes are rated according to their type, voltage, and
current capacity.
• One side is the positive terminal, called the Anode.
• The other terminal is the negative end, called the Cathode.
• Current can only move in from the anode to the cathode,
never the other way around.
• A simple way to remember which way current flows in a
diode is to follow the direction of the arrow.

Poonam Hingmire 80
Diod
e
PN JUNCTION
DIODE
• If we join a piece of P type material to a piece of
N type material such that the crystal structure
remains continuous at the boundary….. A PN
JUNCTION is formed.
• PN junction is a device formed by joining p-type with n-
type semiconductors and separated by a thin junction is
called PN Junction diode.
• In PN junction diode, N is at right and P is at left.
• Majority carriers
• N region -- electrons
• P region -- holes

Poonam Hingmire 82
Formation of depletion
layer

• The excess electrons in the N region cross the junction and combine with the excess holes
in the P region.
• N region loses its electrons … … becomes + vly charged
• P region accepts the electrons ……becomes - vly charged
• At one point , the migratory action is stopped.
• An additional electrons from the N region are repelled by the net negative charge of the
p region.
• An additional holes from the P region are repelled by the net positive charge of the n
region.
• A creation of a thin layer of each side of the junction which is depleted (emptied) of
mobile charge carriers. This is known as D EPLETIO N LAYER.
Poonam Hingmire 83
Formation of depletion
layer

• The depletion layer contains no free and mobile charge carriers but only fixed and
immobile ions. Its width depends upon the doping level..
• Heavy doped……..thin depletion layer
• lightly doped……..thick depletion layer
Potential Barrier:
• The electrons in the N region have to climb the potential hill in order to reach the P
region
• Electrons trying to cross from the N region to P region experience a retarding field of the
battery andpotential
are called thereforebarrier
repelled. Similarly forHingmire
Poonam holes from P region. Potential thus produced
67
Modes of PN junction
Diode:
• P-type semiconductor is joined with N-type
semiconductor so it forms a P-N junction diode.
• PN junction can basically work in two modes, (A battery is
connected to the diode )
• Bias: It means to apply voltage across P-N junction.

• Forw ard Bias mode

positive terminal connected to p-region and negative
terminal connected to n region.

• Reverse Bias mo de
negative terminal connected to p-region and positive
Poonam Hingmire 85
Forward & Reverse Bias
Forward biased PN
junction

• It forces the majority charge carriers to move across the junction decreasing the width of
the depletion layer.
• Once the junction is crossed, a number of electrons and the holes will recombine .
• For each hole in the P section that combines with an electron from the N section, a covalent
bond breaks and an electron is liberated which enters the positive terminal. Thus creating an
electron hole pair.
• Current in the N region is carried by ….electrons
• Current in the P region is carried by …. Holes
Poonam Hingmire 87
Reverse biased PN
junction

If the +ve of the battery is connected to the n-type and the -ve
terminal
to the p-type, then it is called as "Reverse bias". the free electrons and
free holes are attracted back towards the battery, hence back from the
depletion layer, hence the depletion layer grows.
Thus a reverse biased pn junction does not conduct current.
Poonam Hingmire 88
ZENER DIODE
• It is designed to get stable voltage and it is operated in
Reverse bias only.
• The Zener diode is a special diode, that enables the
current to flow not only from positive terminal (anode) to
the negative terminal (cathode), but also in the opposite
direction.
• The doping of the Zener diode is more than the
conventional diode, so its depletion part has less area.
• Zener diode is mostly used in types of electronic devices
like computers, laptops etc, it is the basic component of
the electronic circuitries.
• It used for power stabilizer circuitries to maintain the
voltage level for a particular device.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device
that emits light when an electric current flows through
it.
• When current passes through an LED, the electrons
recombine with holes emitting light in the process.
• LEDs allow the current to flow in the forward direction
and blocks the current in the reverse direction.
• Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped P-N junctions.
• Based on the semiconductor material used and the
amount of doping, an LED will emit a colored light at a
particular spectral wavelength when forward biased.
• As shown in the figure, an LED is encapsulated with a
transparent cover so that emitted light can come out.
Photo Diode
• Photo diode is function opposite to LED.
• When light incident on it , it conducts.
• The current through photodiode depends on
the light intensity.
• Photodiode is normally operated in Reverse
Bias.
• When it is exposed to loght due to energy of
light , electron-hole pairs are generated
therefore current flows through it.
• Applications: In computer Punch card, light
detectors, sound reproduction of film
projector and light operated switches