CHAPTER 4

OUTLINES
1. Digital Modulation
 Introduction

 Information capacity, Bits, Bit Rate, Baud, M-

ary encoding
 ASK, FSK, PSK, QPSK, QAM

2. Digital Transmission
 Pulse modulation
 PCM
 Delta Modulation
 Line Codes
3. Multiplexing
 FDM, TDM, SDM
 PART 1
DIGITAL MODULATION
 Introduction
 Information capacity, Bits, Bit Rate,
Baud, M-ary encoding
 ASK, FSK, PSK, QPSK, QAM
 Introduction
 Digital modulation
 Is the transmittal of digitally modulated
analog signals (carriers) between two or more
points in a communications system.
 Can be propagated through Earth’s atmosphere and
used in wireless communication system - digital radio
 Applications:
 Low speed voice band data comm. modems
 High speed data transmission systems
 Digital microwave & satellite comm. systems
 PCS (personal communication systems) telephone
Why digital modulation?
 The modulation of digital signals with analogue
carriers allows an improvement in signal to noise
ratio as compared to analogue modulating schemes.
 Important Criteria

1. High spectral efficiency

2. High power efficiency
3. Robust to multipath
4. Low cost and ease of implementation
5. Low carrier-to-co channel interference
ratio
6. Low out-of-band radiation
 Cont’d…
7. Constant or near constant envelop
8. Bandwidth Efficiency
 Ability to accommodate data within a limited
bandwidth
 Tradeoff between data rate and pulse width
9. Power Efficiency
 To preserve the fidelity of the digital message at
low power levels.
 Can increase noise immunity by increasing signal
power
 Forms of Digital Modulation
v(t )  V sin( 2ft   )
•If the amplitude, V of the carrier is varied proportional to
the information signal, a digital modulated signal is called
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

•If the frequency, f of the carrier is varied proportional to

the information signal, a digital modulated signal is called
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Cont’d…
 If the phase, θ of the carrier is varied proportional to
the information signal, a digital modulated signal is
called Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

 If both the amplitude and the phase, θ of the carrier are

varied proportional to the information signal, a
digital modulated signal is called Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Cont’d…
Simplified block diagram of a digital modulation system
Cont’d…
 Precoder performs level conversion &
encodes incoming data into group of bits that
modulate an analog carrier.
 Modulated carrier filtered, amplified &
transmitted through transmission medium to
Rx.
 In Rx, the incoming signals filtered, amplified
& applied to the demodulator and decoder
circuits which extracts the original source
information from modulated carrier.
INFORMATION CAPACITY, BIT, BIT
RATE, BAUD & M-ARY ENCODING
 Information capacity
 Represents the number of independent
symbols that can be carried through a
system in a given unit of time.
 Basic digital symbol is the binary digit or
bit.
 Express the information capacity as a bit
rate.
 Hartley’s Law

I  Bt
Where
I = information capacity (bps)
B = bandwidth (Hz)
t = transmission time (s)

From the equation, Information capacity is a linear

function of bandwidth and transmission time and
directly proportional to both.
 Shannon’s Formula
I  B log 2 (1  S
N ) or I  3.32 B log10 (1  S
N )

Where
I = information capacity (bps)
B = bandwidth (Hz)
S
= signal to noise power ratio (unitless)
N

The higher S/N the better the performance and the

higher the information capacity
Nyquist Sampling rate (revision!!!)

 fs is equal or greater than 2fm

fs >= 2fm

fs = minimum Nyquist sample rate (Hz)

fm = maximum analog input frequency (Hz)
M-ary Encoding
 It is often advantageous to encode at a level higher
than binary where there are more then two
conditions possible.
 The number of bits necessary to produce a given
number of conditions is expressed mathematically
as
N  log 2 M
Where N = number of bits necessary
M = number of conditions, level or combinations
possible with N bits.
Cont’d…
 Each symbol represents n bits, and has
M signal states, where M = 2n. This is
called M-ary signaling.
Baud & Minimum BW
 Baud refers to the rate of change of a signal on the
transmission medium after encoding and modulation
have occurred.

1
baud 
ts
Where
baud = symbol rate (symbol per second)
ts = time of one signaling element @ symbol
(seconds)
 Cont’d…
 Minimum Bandwidth
 Using multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation
for channel capacity

f b  2 B log 2 M

Where fb= channel capacity (bps)

B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (Hz)
M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
Cont’d…
For B necessary to pass M-ary digitally modulated carriers

 fb  fb
B
 log M 
  N  baud
 2 

Where N is the number of bits encoded into each

signaling element.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 A binary information signal directly modulates the amplitude of
an analog carrier.
 Sometimes called Digital Amplitude Modulation (DAM)

vask (t )  [1  vm (t )] cos(c t ) A
2

Where vask (t) = amplitude shift keying wave

vm(t) = digital information signal (volt)
A/2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (volt)
ωc = analog carrier radian frequency (rad/s)
 Digital Amplitude Modulation

 A cos(c t ) for logic'1' , vm (t )  1

vask (t )  
 0 for logic'0' , vm (t )  1
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 Called as Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)
 The phase shift in carrier frequency (∆f) is proportional to the
amplitude of the binary input signal (vm(t)) and the direction of
the shift is determined by the polarity

v fsk (t )  Vc cos2 [ f c  vm (t ) f ]t 

Where vfsk(t) = binary FSK waveform

Vc = peak anlog carrier amplitude (volt)
fc = analog carrier center frequency (Hz)
∆f = peak shift in analog carrier frequency (Hz)
vm(t) = binary input signal (volt)
 FSK in the frequency domain

fm  fs
f  ,
2
where
f  frequency deviation (Hz)
f m  f s  absolute difference between mark & space frequency (Hz)
 Cont’d…

Vc cos2 [ f c  f ]t  for logic'1' , vm (t )  1

v fsk (t )  
Vc cos2 [ f c  f ]t  for logic'0' , vm (t )  1
 FSK in the time domain

B  ( f s  f b )  ( f m  f b )  f s  f m  2 f b  2(f  f b )
Truth table

Binary Input Frequency Output

0 Space (fs)

1 Mark (fm)
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
BPSK Transmitter
BPSK Receiver
BPSK
 Bit value 0 – sine wave
 Bit value 1 – inverted sine wave
 Very simple PSK
 Low spectral efficiency
 Robust , used in satellite system
QPSK
QPSK
 2 bits coded as one symbol
 Symbol determines shift of sine wave
 Needs less bandwidth compared to BPSK
 More complex
 CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM
 Graphical representation of the complex envelope of
each possible symbol state

 The x-axis represents the in-phase component

and the y-axis the quadrature component of the
complex envelope

 The distance between signals on a constellation

diagram relates to how different the modulation
waveforms are and how easily a receiver can
differentiate between them.
QAM
 Combine amplitude and phase
modulation
 It is possible to code n bits using one
symbol
 2n discrete levels, n = 2 identical to
QPSK
 BER increase with n, but less compared
to PSK scheme.
 Amplitude and phase shift keying can be combined to
transmit several bits per symbol.
 Often referred to as linear as they require linear amplification.
 More bandwidth-efficient, but more susceptible to noise.

 For M = 4, 16QAM has the largest distance between points,

but requires very linear amplification. 16PSK has less
stringent linearity requirements, but has less spacing
between constellation points, and is therefore more affected
by noise.

 High level M-array schemes (such as 64-QAM) are very

bandwidth-efficient but more susceptible to noise and require
linear amplification
 CONCLUSION
 To decide which modulation method should be used ,
we need to make considerations of

a) Bandwidth

b) Speed of Modulation

c) Complexity of Hardware