GENERAL CHEMISTRY

II
 General Chemistry 2 – Senior High School
(STEM)

EQ: Why do solids and liquids behave differently?

 The Kinetic Molecular Theory explains the
properties of solids and liquids in terms of
intermolecular forces of attraction and the
kinetic energy of the individual particles.
1. All matter is made up of tiny particles.
2. These are particles are in constant motion.
3. The speed of particle is proportional
temperature. Increased to
greater speed. temperature
means
4. Solids, liquids, and gases differ in distances
between particles, in the freedom of motion of
particles, and in the extent to which the
particles interact.
a.Compare the distances among molecules in the gas,
liquid and solid and rank the phases in increasing
distance between particles.
b.Describe the characteristic movement of the particles
of gas, liquid and solid.
c.How are the molecules of gas, liquid and solid
arranged?
d.Arrange the three phases of matter in order of
increasing volume of empty space between its
molecules.
r
 General Chemistry 2 – Senior High School
(STEM)

EQ: How is intermolecular forces defined by nature

of particles?
 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES are attractive
forces between molecules or particles in
the solid or liquid states.
 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES (IMF) are
relatively weaker than the forces within the
molecules forming bonds (intramolecular
forces)

 Intramolecular Forces hold atoms together in

a molecule.
 The intermolecular forces of attraction in a
pure substance are collectively known as van
der Waals forces.

1. Dipole-dipole
2. Hydrogen bonding
3. Ion-dipole
4. London dispersion
5. Dipole-induced dipole force
 Dipole-dipole forces exist between polar
molecules. One end of a dipole attracts the
oppositely charged end of the other dipole.
 It is a special and very strong type of dipole –
dipole force that exists between a hydrogen
atom bound to a small and highly
electronegative non-metal atom.

 Hydrogen bond occurs in polar

molecules
containing H and any of highly
electronegativeelements, in particular
Nitrogen, Fluorine, and Oxygen.
 It acts between an ion
(either positive or negative)
and a polar molecule.

 This explains the solubility of

ionic compounds in water,
which is polar molecule.
 The ions and the oppositely charged
ends of the polar water molecules
overcome the attraction between
ions themselves.
Each ion becomes separated and
water molecules cluster around it.
 It is the weakest type of intermolecular force.
 When two non-polar molecules approach
each other, an instantaneous dipole moment
forms.
 This force is sometimes called an induced
dipole-induced dipole attraction.
 Interaction between Polar and non-polar
molecules.
What type of intermolecular force will act in
the following substances? Justify your answer.

1. sulfur dioxide (SO2) Dipole-dipole

2. nitrogen gas (N2) London Dispersion
3. hydrogen fluoride (HF) Dipole-dipole
4. carbon dioxide (CO2) London Dispersion
5. neon gas (Ne) London Dispersion
6. magnesium chloride (MgCl2) dissolved in
water (H2O) Ion-dipole
General Chemistry 2 – Senior High School
(STEM)

EQ: How do intermolecular forces influence the

properties of liquids?
 Liquidsdo not have a
simple or regular
structure, but many
of their
can properties be
qualitatively
by viewing
explained
them at
the particulate level.
 Surface

Tensio
n
Capillary Viscosity
Action

General
Properties
of Liquids
Vapour
Heat of Pressure
Vaporization

Boiling Point
 Itis the measure of the elastic force in the
surface of a liquid.

 It is the amount of energy required to stretch

or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit
area.

 Itis manifested as some sort of skin on the

surface of a liquid or in a drop of liquid.
 Surface tension allows needles and paper
clips to float in water if placed carefully on the
surface. It also explains why drop of water
are spherical in shaped
 These intermolecular forces tend to pull the
molecules into the liquid and cause the
surface to tighten like an elastic film or “skin”.
 Molecules within a liquid
are pulled in all directions
by intermolecular forces.

 Molecules at the surface

are pulled downward and
sideways by
molecules, other
away from thenot
surface
upward
 The liquids that have strong
Intermolecular forces also have high surface
tension.
 Capillary action is the tendency of a liquid to
rise in narrow tubes or be drawn into small
openings such as those between grains of a
rock.

 Capillary action, also known as capillarity, is

a result of intermolecular attraction between
the liquid and solid materials.
 Capillary action is shown by water rising spontaneously in
capillary tubes. A thin film of water adheres to the wall of the
glass tube as water molecules are attracted to atoms making
up the glass (SiO2).
 Two types of forces are involved in capillary action:

 Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between

like molecules (the liquid molecules).

 Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules

(such as those in water and in the particles that
make up the glass tube).

 These forces also define the shape of the surface of

a liquid in a cylindrical container (the meniscus!)
 When the cohesive forces between the liquid
molecules are greater than the adhesive forces
between the liquid and the walls of the container,
the surface of the liquid is convex.

 When the cohesive forces between the liquid

molecules are lesser than the adhesive forces
between the liquid and the walls of the container,
the surface of the liquid is concave.
 It is defined as the resistance
of a liquid to flow.
 It is loosely referred to as the
thickness or thinness of a
liquid.
 Syrup and oil flow more
slowly than water and are
thus described as more
viscous.
 The of
viscosity
depends on liqui
d
intermolecular attraction.
their
 The the
stronger
intermolecular force,
the
higher is the
liquid’s viscosity
 Long-chained substances like
oil greater
intermolecular
have
because there are forces
atoms that can attract more
one
another, contributing to the
substance’s total attractive
forces.
 Honey, a
solution concentrated of
sugar, of the
highly viscous because is
hydrogen bondingalso that
forms as a of the
numerous-
result OH groups
of sugar molecule.
 It is the pressure exerted by its vapor when in
equilibrium with liquid or solid.

Example:
 When liquid or solid substance is made to
evaporate in a closed container, the gas
exerts a pressure above the liquid.
 Substances with strong
intermolecular relatively forces low vapor
pressure because will the
haveparticles will have
difficulty escaping as a gas.
Example:
1. Water (H2O), (Hydrogen Bonding)
has vapor pressure of 0.03 atm.

1. Ethyl Ether(C4H10O), dipole-dipole &

London Force ) has vapor pressure at 0.68 atm.
 The point of a liquid is the
temperature
boiling at which its vapor pressure is
equal to the external or atmospheric
pressure.
 Increasing the temperature of a liquid raises
the kinetic energy of its molecules, until such
point where the energy of the particle
movement exceeds the intermolecular forces
that hold them together.
 The liquid molecules then transform to gas
and are seen as bubbles that rises to the
surface of the liquids and escape to the
atmosphere.

 Then temperature at which a liquid boils

under 1 atmospheric pressure (1atm) is
referred to as its normal boiling point.
 Athigher altitude, the atmospheric pressure
is lower, hence, the boiling point will
subsequently decrease.

 The greater intermolecular force, the higher

the energy needed to increase the kinetic
energy of the molecules to break these
forces.
 Molar Heat of vaporization ( is
Hvap)
the
amount of heat required to vaporize
one mole of substance at its boiling point.

 The application of heat disrupts

intermolecular forces of attraction of the
the
liquid molecules and allows them to vaporize.
 Boilingpoint generally increases as molar heat
of vaporization increases.

 The Hvap is also determined by the

strength of intermolecular forces between
molecules.
 At room temperature,
pure water is a
colorless, odorless and
tasteless liquid.
 Itturns to ice, its solid
form at 00 C and 1 atm.
 At 1000 C, it become
gas, commonly known
as steam.
1. Water is a good solvent.
2. Water has a high specific heat.

Specific heat is the amount of heat or energy

needed to raise the temperature of one gram of
a substance by 1o C.

3. The boiling point of water unusually high.

4. Solid water is less dense, and in fact floats on liquid
water.
 Unlike all other liquids, the molecules in solid water
are actually farther apart than they are in liquid water.
 When solid water forms, the hydrogen bonds result
in a very open structure with unoccupied spaces,
causing the solid to occupy a larger volume than the
liquid.
 This makes ice less dense than liquid water, causing
ice to float on water.
 General Chemistry 2 – Senior High School
(STEM)

EQ: How do you describe solids?

 Solid can be classified as crystalline or
amorphous based on the arrangement of
their particles.

 Crystallinesolids have highly regular

arrangement of particles, while amorphous
solids have considerable disorder in their
structure.
 Amorphous solids, such
a glass, are
rapidly formed
constituent particles
that do
not have time its to align
or organize into a more
crystalline lattice.
 Crystalline Solids have well-defined
crystal lattice.

A lattice is a three-dimensional system of

points designating the positions of the
components (ions, atoms, or molecules)
that makeup a crystal.
 Cry t .llin ·. ·:oli
Particles Ex·mp·ll ·
T;. bl> Salt
 A unit cell is the smallest repeating unit
of lattice.
 TYPES COMPONENTS TYPE OF TYPICAL PROPERTIES EXAMPLES
THAT INTERACTION
OCCUPY
THE LATTICE BETWEEEN
POINTS COMPONENTS OF
LATTICE
IONIC Ions Ionic Hard, high melting NaCl
point; insulating as solid
but conducting when
dissolved.

MOLECULAR Discrete Dipole-dipole or Soft; low melting point Ice, dry ice
molecules London dispersion

METALLIC Metal atoms Delocalized covalent Wide range of hardness Silver,

and melting points Iron,
Brass
NETWORK Nonmetal Directional covalent Hard, high melting point Diamond
atoms
GROUP 8A Noble gases London dispersion Very low melting point Argon
forces
 General Chemistry 2 – Senior High School
(STEM)

EQ. When does equilibrium exist between the

phases of a substance?
 PhaseChanges are transformations of matter
from one physical state to another.
 Theyoccur when energy is added or removed
from a substance.
 Theyare characterized by changes in molecular
order; molecules in the solid phase have the
greatest order, while those in the gas phase have
the greatest randomness or disorder.
 What changes in molecular order
occur during phase changes?
 How does a change in energy affect phase
changes?
 How does a change in energy affect phase
changes?
 How can this effect be achieved using CO2 or
dry ice?
Carbon dioxide cannot exist as a liquid at
atmospheric pressure, the dry ice sublimates
and instantly produces a gas, condensing water
vapor, and creating a thick white fog.
 What does LPG stand
for? How can a gas be
liquefied?

 What conditions are

needed to convert a gas
into a liquid?
 Liquefied petroleum gas or
liquid petroleum gas (LPG
or LP gas), are flammable
mixtures of hydrocarbon
gases.
 It is used as fuel in heating
appliances,
cooking equipment, and
vehicles
 It is a graphical representation of the physical states
of a substance under different conditions of
temperature and pressure.

 It gives the possible combinations of pressure and

temperature at which certain physical state or
states a substance would be observed.
 Phase diagrams are plots of pressure (usually
in atmospheres) versus temperature (usually
in degrees Celsius or Kelvin).

1. Three Areas (Solid, Liquid, Gas)

 The three areas are marked solid, liquid, and
vapor. Under a set of conditions in the
diagram, a substance can exist in a solid,
liquid, or vapor (gas) phase.
 The lines that serve as boundaries between
physical states represent the combinations of
pressures and temperatures at which two
phases can exist in equilibrium.

 In other words, these lines define phase

change points.
 The green line divides the solid and liquid
phases, and represents melting (solid to
liquid) and freezing (liquid to solid) points.
 Melting (or freezing) curve – the curve on a
phase diagram which represents the
transition between liquid and solid states.


It shows the effect of pressure on the
melting point of the solid. Anywhere on this
line, there is equilibrium between the solid
and the liquid.
 The blue line divides the liquid and gas
phases, and represents vaporization (liquid to
gas) and condensation (gas to liquid) points.
 The on a phase diagram which
curve
represents the transition between gaseous
and liquid states. It shows the effect of
pressure on the boiling point of the liquid.

 Anywhere along this line, there will

be equilibrium between the liquid and the
vapor.
 The red line divides the solid and gas phases,
and represents sublimation (solid to gas)
and deposition (gas to solid) points.
 The curve on a phase diagram which
represents the transition between gaseous
and solid states.

 It represents the effect of increased

temperature on a solid at a very low constant
pressure, lower than the triple point.
 The triple point is the combination of
pressure and temperature at which all three
phases of matter are at equilibrium.

 It is the point on a phase diagram at which

the three states of matter coexist. The lines
that represent the conditions of solid-liquid,
liquid-vapor, and solid-vapor equilibrium
meet at the triple point
 Thecritical point terminates the liquid/gas
phase line. It is the set of temperature and
pressure on a phase diagram where the liquid
and gaseous phases of a substance merge
together into a single phase.

 Beyond the temperature of the critical point,

the merged single phase is known as a
supercritical fluid.
Constructing a Phase Diagram
Visualize a substance with the following points on the phase diagram: a triple
point at 0.05 atm and 150 K; a normal melting point at 175 K; a normal boiling
point at 350 K; and a critical point at 2.0 atm and 450 K.
The solid liquid line is “normal” (meaning positive sloping).

For this, complete the following:

1.Roughly sketch the phase diagram, using units of atmosphere and Kelvin.
Label the area 1, 2, and 3, and points T and C on the diagram.
2. Describe what one would see at pressures and temperatures above 2.0 atm
and 450 K.
3. Describe the phase changes from 50 K to 250 K at 1.5 atm.
4. What exists in a system that is at 1 atm and 350 K?
5. What exists in a system that is at 1 atm and 175 K?