Linear Algebra

4.1
Examples:
Check whether the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers form a vector
space over ℝ with vector addition and scalar multiplication given by
( 𝑖 ) ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1)+( 𝑥2 , 𝑦 2 )= ( 𝑥1 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 1+ 𝑦 2 )
( 𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑘( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 )=( 2 𝑘 𝑥1 , 2 𝑘 𝑦 1 )
Proof: I. Abelian group under addition

1. Closure property:
Let where ,
we need to prove that

Now
𝑢+ 𝑣=( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) +( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 )
𝑢+ 𝑣=( 𝑥 1+ 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦∈
2) ℝ
2

Therefore
𝑢 , 𝑣 ∈ ℝ 2 implies 𝑢+ 𝑣 ∈ ℝ 2

4.2
2. Associativity property:

Let where & ,

we need to prove that

Now
}

¿ ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) + ( 𝑥 2 + 𝑥3 , 𝑦 2+ 𝑦 3 )
¿ ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 3 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2+ 𝑦 3 )
¿ ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 3 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2+ 𝑦 3 )

¿ ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2 ) +(𝑥3 , 𝑦 3)

𝑢+ ( 𝑣+ 𝑤 )= (𝑢 +𝑣 ) +𝑤

4.3
3. Identity Property:

Wsuch that

for all
Let such that

𝑢+ 𝑒=( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 ) +( 0 , 0) 𝑒 +𝑢=( 0 , 0 )+ ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 )

¿ ( 𝑥 1 +0 , 𝑦 1+ 0 ) ¿ ( 0 + 𝑥 1 , 0 + 𝑦 1 )

¿ ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦1) ¿ ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦1)
𝑢+ 𝑒=𝑢 𝑒 +𝑢=𝑢

Therefore
for all

4.4
 4. Inverse Property:

Wthere exists such that

𝑢+(−𝑢)=(− 𝑢)+ 𝑢=𝑒

Let such that

𝑢+(−𝑢)=( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) + ( − 𝑥 1 , − 𝑦 1 ) (−𝑢)+𝑢=( − 𝑥1 , − 𝑦 1) + ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 )

¿ (0 , 0) ¿ (0 , 0)

𝑢+(−𝑢)=𝑒 ( −𝑢 )+ 𝑢=𝑒

Therefore
𝑢+(−𝑢)=(− 𝑢)+ 𝑢=𝑒

4.5
5. Commutative Property:

for all

Now,
𝑢+ 𝑣=( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) + ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 )

¿ ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2 )
¿ ( 𝑥 2 + 𝑥1 , 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 1 )
¿ ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 ) +( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 )

𝑢+ 𝑣=𝑣 +𝑢
Therefore
for all

4.6
II Scalar Multiplication
6. Closure Property:
W
such that
Now,
( 𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑘(𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 )=( 2 𝑘 𝑥1 , 2 𝑘 𝑦 1 )
𝛼 𝑢=𝛼 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 )

𝛼 𝑢=( 2 𝛼 𝑥 1 , 2 𝛼 𝑦 1∈
) ℝ2
Therefore
we have

4.7
7. Distributive property of scalar multiplication over vector addition:

W for all

𝛼 ( 𝑢+ 𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛼 𝑣
Now,
( 𝑖 ) ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1)+( 𝑥2 , 𝑦 2 )= ( 𝑥1 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 1+ 𝑦 2 )
}
( 𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑘(𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 )=( 2 𝑘 𝑥1 , 2 𝑘 𝑦 1 )
¿ 𝛼 ( 𝑥1+ 𝑥2, 𝑦1+ 𝑦2)

¿ ( 2𝛼 𝑥 1 +2 𝛼 𝑥 2 , 2𝛼 𝑦 1 +2 𝛼 𝑦 2)
¿ ( 2𝛼 𝑥 1 ,2 𝛼 𝑦 1) + ( 2 𝛼 𝑥 2 , 2 𝛼 𝑦 2)
¿ 𝛼 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) +𝛼 ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 )
𝛼 ( 𝑢+ 𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛼 𝑣
Therefore
2
𝛼 ( 𝑢+𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+𝛼 𝑣 for all 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 =ℝ ∧𝛼 ∈ 𝐾
4.8
8. Distributive property of vector addition over scalar multiplication :

W for all

( 𝛼+ 𝛽 ) 𝑢=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛽 𝑢
( 𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑘(𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 )=( 2 𝑘 𝑥1 , 2 𝑘 𝑦 1 )
Now, ( 𝛼+ 𝛽 ) 𝑢=( 𝛼+ 𝛽 ) ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1)
¿ ( 2 ( 𝛼+ 𝛽 ) 𝑥 1 ,2 ( 𝛼 + 𝛽 ) 𝑦 1 )

¿ ( 2𝛼 𝑥 1 +2 𝛽 𝑥1 , 2 𝛼 𝑦 1 +2 𝛽 𝑦 1 )

¿ ( 2𝛼 𝑥 1 ,2 𝛼 𝑦 1) + ( 2 𝛽 𝑥 1 ,2 𝛽 𝑦 1 )

¿ 𝛼 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) + 𝛽 ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 )

( 𝛼+ 𝛽 ) 𝑢=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛽 𝑢
Therefore
for all

4.9
9. Associative property of vector with scalar multiplication :

W for all

𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢

Now, 𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= 𝛼 ( 2 𝛽 𝑥 1 , 2 𝛽 𝑦 1 )
¿ ( 4 𝛼 𝛽 𝑥1 , 4 𝛼𝛽 𝑦 1 )
≠ 𝛼𝛽 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 )
𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 ) ≠ ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢 Axiom (9) fails

10. Property 10: The set of all order pairs

1 ( 𝑢 )=1 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 ) with the vector addition and
scalar multiplication
1 ( 𝑢 )= ( 2 𝑥 1 ,2 𝑦 1 ) ( 𝑖 ) ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1)+( 𝑥2 , 𝑦 2 )= ( 𝑥1 + 𝑦 1 , 𝑥 2+ 𝑦 2 )
1 (𝑢 ¿ ≠ 𝑢 ( 𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑘(𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 )=( 2 𝑘 𝑥1 , 2 𝑘 𝑦 1 )

Axiom (10) fails is not a vector space, since Axioms (9)

and (10) are failed.
4.10
3. Examples:
Is the set with vector addition and scalar multiplication given below form a
vector space
( 𝑖 ) ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 ) + ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 3 ) =( 𝑥1 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 1+ 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 1 + 𝑧 3 )
( 𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑘 ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 )= ( 𝑘 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 )
Proof: I. Abelian group under addition
1. Closure property:
Let where ,
we need to prove that

Now
𝑢+ 𝑣=( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 ) +( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 2)

𝑢+ 𝑣=( 𝑥 1+ 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 1 + 𝑧 2∈
) ℝ3
Therefore
𝑢 , 𝑣 ∈ ℝ 3 implies 𝑢+ 𝑣 ∈ ℝ 3

4.11
2. Associativity property:

Let where & ,

we need to prove that

Now
}

¿ ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 ) + ( 𝑥 2+ 𝑥 3 , 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3 , 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 3 )

¿ ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 3 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2+ 𝑦 3 , 𝑧 1 + 𝑧 2+ 𝑧 3 )

¿ ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 1+ 𝑧 2 ) +( 𝑥 3 , 𝑦 3 , 𝑧 3)

𝑢+ ( 𝑣+ 𝑤 )= (𝑢 +𝑣 ) +𝑤

4.12
3. Identity Property:

Wsuch that

for all
Let such that

𝑢+ 𝑒=( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 ) +(0 , 0 , 0) 𝑒 +𝑢=( 0 , 0 , 0 ) + ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 )

¿ ( 𝑥 1 +0 , 𝑦 1+ 0 , 𝑧 1 +0 ) ¿ ( 0+ 𝑥 1 , 0 + 𝑦 1 , 0+ 𝑧 1 )
¿ ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧1 ) ¿ ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧1 )
𝑢+ 𝑒=𝑢 𝑒 +𝑢=𝑢

Therefore
for all

4.13
 4. Inverse Property:

Wthere exists such that

𝑢+(−𝑢)=(− 𝑢)+ 𝑢=𝑒

Let such that
𝑢+(−𝑢)=( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 ) + ( − 𝑥1 , − 𝑦 1 , − 𝑧(−𝑢)+𝑢=
1) ( − 𝑥1 , − 𝑦 1 , − 𝑧 1) + ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 )

¿ (0 , 0 , 0) ¿ (0 , 0 , 0)

𝑢+(−𝑢)=𝑒 ( −𝑢 )+ 𝑢=𝑒

Therefore
𝑢+(−𝑢)=(− 𝑢)+ 𝑢=𝑒

4.14
5. Commutative Property:

for all

Now,
𝑢+ 𝑣=( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 ) + ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 2 )
¿ ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 1+ 𝑧 2 )

¿ ( 𝑥 2 + 𝑥1 , 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 2+ 𝑧 1 )

¿ ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 2 ) + ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1)

𝑢+ 𝑣=𝑣 +𝑢
Therefore
for all

4.15
II Scalar Multiplication
6. Closure Property:
W

such that
Now,
𝛼 𝑢=𝛼 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 )

𝛼 𝑢=( 𝛼 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧∈
1) ℝ
3

Therefore
we have

4.16
7. Distributive property of scalar multiplication over vector addition:

W for all

𝛼 ( 𝑢+ 𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛼 𝑣

Now, 𝛼 (𝑢+𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+𝛼 𝑣

𝛼 { ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 ) + ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 2 ) }=𝛼 ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 ) +𝛼 ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 2 )

𝛼 ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 1+ 𝑧 2 ) =( 𝛼 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 ) + ( 𝛼 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 2 )

( 𝛼 𝑥 1 +𝛼 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 1+ 𝑧 2 ) =( 𝛼 𝑥 1 +𝛼 𝑥2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 1+ 𝑧 2 )

𝐿 𝐻𝑆=𝑅𝐻𝑆
Therefore
3
𝛼 ( 𝑢+𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+𝛼 𝑣 for all 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 =ℝ ∧𝛼 ∈ 𝐾

4.17
7. Distributive property of scalar multiplication over vector addition:

W for all

𝛼 ( 𝑢+ 𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛼 𝑣

Now, }

¿ 𝛼 ( 𝑥 1 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 1+ 𝑧 2 )

¿ ( 𝛼 𝑥 1 +𝛼 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 1 + 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 1 + 𝑧 2 )
¿ ( 𝛼 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1) + ( 𝛼 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 2 )
¿ 𝛼 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1) +𝛼 ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 2 )
𝛼 ( 𝑢+ 𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛼 𝑣
Therefore
3
𝛼 ( 𝑢+𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+𝛼 𝑣 for all 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 =ℝ ∧𝛼 ∈ 𝐾

4.18
8. Distributive property of vector addition over scalar multiplication :

W for all

( 𝛼+ 𝛽 ) 𝑢=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛽 𝑢
Now,

( 𝛼 + 𝛽 ) 𝑢=( ( 𝛼 + 𝛽 ) 𝑥 1 ,𝛼𝑦𝑢+
1 ,𝛽𝑧 1 ) ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧1 ) + 𝛽 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧1 )
𝑢=𝛼
( 𝛼+ 𝛽 ) 𝑢=( 𝛼 𝑥 1 + 𝛽 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 ) ¿ ( 𝛼 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1) + ( 𝛽 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 )
𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛽 𝑢=( 𝛼 𝑥 1+ 𝛽 𝑥 1 , 2 𝑦 1 , 2 𝑧 1 )

( 𝛼+ 𝛽 ) 𝑢 ≠ 𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛽 𝑢

Axiom 8 fails

4.19
9. Associative property of vector with scalar multiplication :

W for all

𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢

Now, 𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= 𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 )
¿ ( 𝛼 𝛽 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧1 )
¿ 𝛼𝛽 ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1)
𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢
Therefore for all

4.20
9. Associative property of vector addition and scalar multiplication :

W for all

𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢

Now, 𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )=𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 )
1 1 1 ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢=(𝛼𝛽 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1)
¿ ( 𝛼 𝛽 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧1 )

𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢
The set with the vector addition and
10. Property 10: scalar multiplication
( 𝑖 ) ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 ) + ( 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 3 ) =( 𝑥1 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 1+ 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 1 + 𝑧 3 )
1 ( 𝑢 )= ( ( 1 ) 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1)
( 𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑘 ( 𝑥1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 )= ( 𝑘 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧 1 )
¿ ( 𝑥 1 , 𝑦 1 , 𝑧1 )
is not a vector space, since Axiom 8 fails.
1 ( 𝑢 )=𝑢

4.21
4. Examples:
Is the set of all positive real numbers with vector addition and scalar
multiplication given below form a vector space ?
( 𝑖 ) 𝑥+ 𝑦=𝑥 𝑦
( 𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑘𝑥=𝑥 𝑘
Proof: I. Abelian group under addition
1. Closure property:
Let where ,
we need to prove that
( 𝑖 ) 𝑥+ 𝑦=𝑥 𝑦
Now
𝑢+ 𝑣=𝑥+ 𝑦
𝑢+ 𝑣=𝑥𝑦∈𝑉
Therefore
𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 implies𝑢+𝑣 ∈ 𝑉

4.22
2. Associativity property:

Let where & ,

we need to prove that

Now ( 𝑖 ) 𝑥+ 𝑦=𝑥 𝑦
}

¿ 𝑥+ 𝑦 𝑧
¿ 𝑥𝑦𝑧

¿ 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧

𝑢+ ( 𝑣+ 𝑤 )= (𝑢 +𝑣 ) +𝑤

4.23
3. Identity Property:

Wsuch that

for all
Let such that

𝑢+ 𝑒= 𝑥 +1 𝑒 +𝑢=1 + 𝑥
¿ 𝑥 . 1 ¿ 1 . 𝑥
¿𝑥 ¿𝑥
𝑢+ 𝑒=𝑢 𝑒 +𝑢=𝑢

Therefore
for all

4.24
4. Inverse Property:

Wthere exists such that

𝑢+ 𝑣=𝑣 +𝑢=𝑒
Let such that
1
1 𝑣 +𝑢= +𝑥
𝑢+ 𝑣= 𝑥+ 𝑥
𝑥
1 1
¿𝑥 ¿ 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
¿1 ¿1
𝑢+ 𝑣=𝑒 𝑣 +𝑢=𝑒
Therefore
𝑢+ 𝑣=𝑣 +𝑢=𝑒

4.25
5. Commutative Property:

for all

Now,
𝑢+ 𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑦
¿ 𝑥𝑦
¿ 𝑦𝑥
¿ 𝑦 +𝑥
𝑢+ 𝑣=𝑣 +𝑢
Therefore
for all

4.26
II Scalar Multiplication
6. Closure Property:
W
such that

Now, ( 𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑘𝑥=𝑥 𝑘
𝛼 𝑢=𝛼 𝑥
𝛼 𝑢=𝑥 𝛼 ∈𝑉
Therefore
we have

4.27
7. Distributive property of scalar multiplication over vector addition:

W for all

𝛼 ( 𝑢+ 𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛼 𝑣

Now, 𝛼 (𝑢+𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+𝛼 𝑣

𝛼 { 𝑥 + 𝑦 }=𝛼 𝑥 + 𝛼 𝑦
𝛼 ( 𝑥 𝑦 )= 𝑥 𝛼 + 𝑦 𝛼

( 𝑥𝑦 )𝛼 =𝑥 𝛼 𝑦 𝛼
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
𝑥 𝑦 =𝑥 𝑦 𝐿 𝐻𝑆=𝑅𝐻𝑆
Therefore

𝛼 ( 𝑢+𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+𝛼 𝑣 for all 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 ∧𝛼 ∈ 𝐾

4.28
7. Distributive property of scalar multiplication over vector addition:

W for all

𝛼 ( 𝑢+ 𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛼 𝑣
Now, }

¿𝛼 ( 𝑥 𝑦)
𝛼
¿ ( 𝑥 𝑦 )
𝛼 𝛼
¿𝑥 𝑦
𝛼 𝛼
¿ 𝑥 +𝑦
¿ 𝛼 𝑥 +𝛼 𝑦
𝛼 ( 𝑢+ 𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛼 𝑣
Therefore
𝛼 ( 𝑢+𝑣 )=𝛼 𝑢+𝛼 𝑣 for all 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 ∧𝛼 ∈ 𝐾
4.29
8. Distributive property of vector addition over scalar multiplication :

W for all

( 𝛼+ 𝛽 ) 𝑢=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛽 𝑢
Now,

𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛽𝑢=𝛼 𝑥+ 𝛽 𝑥
𝛼 𝛽
( 𝛼 + 𝛽 ) 𝑢= 𝑥 ( 𝛼+ 𝛽 ) ¿ 𝑥 +𝑥
𝛼 𝛽
𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛽 𝑢=𝑥 𝑥
𝛼+𝛽
𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛽 𝑢=𝑥

( 𝛼+ 𝛽 ) 𝑢=𝛼 𝑢+ 𝛽 𝑢

4.30
9. Associative property of vector with scalar multiplication :

W for all

𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢

Now, 𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= 𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑥 )
𝛽
¿ 𝛼 𝑥
𝛼𝛽
¿𝑥
¿ (𝛼𝛽) 𝑥
𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢
Therefore for all

4.31
9. Associative property of vector addition and scalar multiplication :

W for all

𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢

Now, 𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= 𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑥 ) ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢=( 𝛼 𝛽 ) 𝑥
𝛽
¿𝛼 𝑥 ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢=𝑥𝛼𝛽
𝛼𝛽
¿𝑥
𝛼 ( 𝛽 𝑢 )= ( 𝛼𝛽 ) 𝑢
10. Property 10: The set with the vector addition and
scalar multiplication defined as follows
1 ( 𝑢 )=1 𝑥
1 ( 𝑖 ) 𝑥+ 𝑦=𝑥 𝑦
¿𝑥
( 𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑘𝑥=𝑥 𝑘
¿𝑥
is a vector space.
1 ( 𝑢 )=𝑢
4.32
THANK YOU

4.33