Fluid Flow

UNIT 2
MOMENTUM ANALYSES OF FLOW SYSTEMS
Newton’s Laws
Do you remember Newton’s Laws??

Newton’s First Law

Newton’s Second Law

Newton’s Third Law

Newton’s Laws
Newton’s First Law (The Law of Inertia) states that a body at
rest remains at rest, and a body in motion remains in motion
at the same velocity in a straight path when the net force
acting on it is zero.

Newton’s Second Law (F = ma) states that the acceleration of

a body is proportional to the net force acting on it and is
inversely proportional to its mass.

Newton’s Third Law (The law of action and reaction) states

that when a body exerts a force on a second body, the second
body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.
 Newton’s Second Law
For a rigid body of mass (m), Newton’s second law is expressed as.

⃗ ⃗
𝐹 =𝑚 𝑎

Where F is the net force acting on the body and a is the acceleration of the body under
the influence of F
The product of the mass and the velocity of a body is called the linear momentum or
momentum. The momentum of a rigid body of mass (m) moving with velocity V is mV.
Newton’s Second Law
The Newton’s Second Law can be stated as:
“The rate of change of the momentum of a body is equal to the net force acting
on the body”

𝑑(𝑚 𝑉⃗)
⃗ ⃗=
𝐹 =𝑚 𝑎
𝑑𝑡
Net force
Rate of change
of momentum
Newton’s Second Law
In Fluid Mechanics, Newton’s second law is usually referred to as the
linear momentum equation.

Note that force, acceleration, velocity and momentum are vector

quantities, and as such they have a direction as well as magnitude.
The linear momentum equation
The Newton’s second law for a system of mass subjected to a force
can be expressed as.

𝑑 (𝑚 ⃗
𝑉)
⃗
Σ 𝐹 =𝑚 ⃗𝑎 =
𝑑𝑡

Where mV is the linear momentum of the system.

Therefore, Newton’s second law can be stated as:
The sum of all external forces acting on a system is equal to the time of change
of linear momentum of the system.

The previous statement can be applied in fluid mechanics since most flow
systems are analyzed using control volumes.
 Conservation of linear momentum for a control
volume

Rate of momentum Rate of accumulation

The sum of all Rate of momentum
external forces = out of control - + of momentum in
volume into control volume control volume
acting on a CV
Sum of forces
We should note that in general may have a component in any
direction. That is:
and in two directions each term is composed of the sum of several
forces.
1. Body force
2. Pressure force
3. Friction force
4. Solid surface force
Sum of forces
1. Body force (Fg). It is the directed force caused by gravity acting on the total
mass of the control volume.
2. Pressure force (Fp). It is the directed force caused by the pressure forces
acting on the surface of the fluid system.
3. Friction force (Fs). When the fluid is flowing, and shear or friction force is
present. However, in some or many cases friction forces may be negligible
compared to other forces and then neglected.
4. Solid surface force (Rx). It is present in cases where the control surface cuts
through a solid. This occurs in typical cases when the control volume includes
a section of pipe and the fluid it contains.
For a small element of area dA on the control surface,
the rate of mass efflux from this element is equal to:

Where ρ is the fluid density

is the velocity
A is the area dA projected in a direction normal to the
velocity vector v.
α is the angle between the velocity vector and the unit
normal vector n to dA.
The quantity has units of kg/s m2 and is often called flux
or mass velocity G.
From vector algebra we recognize that is the scalar or dot product
If we introduce the mass efflux concept into the momentum definition given in
the Newton’s second Law we obtain the rate of momentum efflux

Integrating over the entire control surface A

Rate of momentum ❑ ❑
out of control -
Rate of momentum
∫∫
= ⃗
𝑉 𝜌 ⃗
𝑉 ( 𝑑𝐴 cos𝛼 ) = ⃗
𝑉 ( ⃗
∫∫ 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛⃗ )𝑑𝐴
volume into control volume
𝑐𝑠 𝑐𝑠

Net momentum efflux from

control volume
Similarly, the rate of accumulation of linear momentum within the
control volume V is:

❑
Rate of accumulation
𝜕
of momentum in ¿ ∫∫ ∫ 𝜌 ⃗
𝑉 𝑑𝑉
control volume 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉
Therefore, the overall linear momentum balance for a control
volume becomes.
❑ ❑
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ 𝜕 ⃗ 𝑑𝑉
Σ 𝐹 =∫∫ 𝜌 𝑉 ( 𝑉 ∙ ⃗𝑛 )𝑑𝐴+ ∫∫ ∫ 𝜌 𝑉
𝑐𝑠
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉
Control Volume
A control volume usually encloses a device that involves mass Flow such as a
compressor, turbine or nozzle.
The boundaries of a control volume are called control surface, that can be
selected as any arbitrary region in space through which fluid flows, which can be
real, imaginary, fixed or moving.
Special cases
Despite the last equation is exact for fixed control volumes, it is not
always convenient when solving practical engineering problems
because of the integrals. Instead, we can rewrite the equation in terms
of average velocities and mass flow rates through inlets and outlets.
In other words, our desire is to rewrite the equation in algebraic rather
than in integral form.
Steady state
During this course, steady state can be assumed during most
momentum problems.
What happens in steady state?

❑ ❑
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ 𝜕 ⃗ 𝑑𝑉
Σ 𝐹 =∫∫ 𝜌 𝑉 ( 𝑉 ∙ ⃗𝑛 )𝑑𝐴+ ∫∫ ∫ 𝜌 𝑉
𝑐𝑠
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉
Steady state
Most momentum problems considered in this course are steady. During steady
state flow, the amount of momentum within the control volume remains constant,
dM/dt = 0 and thus the time rate of linear momentum (second term) is zero and one
integral is not needed. Thus.
❑ ❑
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ 𝜕 ⃗ 𝑑𝑉
Σ 𝐹=∫∫ 𝜌 𝑉 (𝑉 ∙ ⃗𝑛 )𝑑𝐴+ ∫∫ ∫ 𝜌 𝑉
𝑐𝑠
𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉

❑
Σ⃗
𝐹 =∫ 𝜌 ⃗
𝑉 (⃗ ⃗ 𝑑 𝐴
𝑉 ∙ 𝑛)
𝐶𝑆
 Mass Flow rate
The mass flow rate into or out of the control volume across an inlet or outlet at
which is nearly constant is

Where
A is the control surface at an inlet or outlet of a cross-sectional area
Vavg is the average velocity
Momentum flow across a uniform inlet
or outlet
=

The uniform Flow approximation is reasonable at some inlets and

outlets. For example:
 the well-rounded entrance to a pipe
 the flow at the entrance to a wind tunnel test section
Momentum-flux correction factor β
Unfortunately, the velocity across most inlets and outlets of practical
engineering interest is not uniform.
Nevertheless, it turns out that we can still convert the control surface
integral into algebraic form. To achieve this, a dimensionless
correction factor β is required
Momentum-flux correction factor β
The value of β is used to calculate the moment flux across an inlet or
outlet

∫ 𝜌⃗
𝑉 (⃗ 𝑛 ) 𝑑 𝐴= β 𝑚
𝑉 ∙⃗ ˙ 𝑉 𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝐶𝑆
Momentum-flux correction factor β
The value of β is equal to 1 for the case of uniform flow over an inlet
or outlet. For the general case, β can be obtained with the following
equation.

( )
❑ 2
1 𝑉
β= ∫ 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝐶𝑆 𝑉 𝑎𝑣𝑔
Example1: Momentum-Flux correction Factor for
Laminar Pipe Flow
Consider laminar Flow through a very long straight section or round pipe. The
velocity profile through a cross-sectional area of the pipe is parabolic with the axial
velocity component given by

( )
2
𝑟
𝑉 = 2𝑉 𝑎𝑣𝑔 1− 2
𝑅

Where R is the radius of the inner wall of the pipe and V avg is the average velocity.
Calculate the momentum flux correction factor through a cross section of the pipe for the
case in which the pipe flow represents and outlet of the control volume.
 ( )
❑ 2
1 𝑉
β= ∫ 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝐶𝑆 𝑉 𝑎𝑣𝑔
Moment flux correction factor
From last problem, we see that β is not very close to unit for
laminar pipe flow, and ignoring β could potentially lead to a
significant error.

However, for turbulent flow, we would find that β ranges from

about 1.01 to 1.04.
Steady flow
Is the flow is steady, the linear momentum equation can be
expressed in algebraic form this way

❑ ❑
∑ ⃗𝐹=∑ 𝛽 𝑚˙ 𝑉⃗ − ∑ 𝛽 𝑚˙ ⃗𝑉
𝑜 𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛
In most Flow systems, the sum of forces consist
of weights, pressure forces and reaction forces.
Gage pressures are used here since
atmospheric pressure cancels out on all sides of
the control Surface.
Example: momentum balance for
horizontal nozzle
Water at 20 °C is flowing at a rate of 0.03154 m3/s through a horizontal nozzle
shown and discharges to the atmosphere at point 2. The nozzle is attached at
the upstream end at point 1 and frictional forces are considered negligible. The
upstream internal diameter is 0.0635 m and the downstream 0.0286 m.
Calculate the resultant force on the nozzle. The density of the water is 1000
kg/m3.
 ❑ ❑
∑ ∑
⃗
𝐹= 𝛽 𝑚
˙ ⃗
𝑉 − ∑ 𝑉
𝛽 𝑚
˙ ⃗
𝑜 𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛
A wind generator with a 30 ft diameter has a minimum speed for power generation
of 7 mph, at which velocity generates 0.4 kW of electric power. Determine

a) The efficiency of the wind turbine-generator unit

b) The horizontal force exerted by the wind on the supporting mast of the wind
turbine.

Take the density of the air to be 0.076 lbm/ft 3. Consider that the wind flow is steady
and incompressible, frictional forces are negligible and that the moment-flux
correction factor β = 1.
A wind generator with a 30 ft diameter has a minimum speed for power generation
of 7 mph, at which velocity generates 0.4 kW of electric power. Determine

a) The efficiency of the wind turbine-generator unit

b) The horizontal force exerted by the wind on the supporting mast of the wind
turbine.

Take the density of the air to be 0.076 lbm/ft 3. Consider that the wind flow is steady
and incompressible, frictional forces are negligible and that the moment-flux
correction factor β = 1.
References
https://www.slideshare.net/ADDISUDAGNEZEGEYE/fluid-mechanics-chapter-3-integral-relations-
for-a-control-volume