RIVER PROSESSES AND LANDFORMS

Drainage Basin
Definition of terms

• Drainage basin: this is an area that is drained by the main river and its
tributaries
• Source region: the point where the river starts, usually in
mountainous areas
• River mouth : the point where a river enters the sea / lake.
• Tributary : this is a smaller river or stream supplying water to the
main river.
• Confluence: the point where two rivers meet or where the tributary
joints the main river.
• Watershed/water divide: the boundary of the drainage
basin/catchment area.
The hydrological cycle (water cycle)

• This refers to the movement of water between atmosphere,

lithosphere and biosphere.
• The major input in this cycle is precipitation and the outputs
are evapotranspiration and river discharge.
• In the cycle, water can be kept in stores such as vegetation,
surface, soil moisture, groundwater and water channels.
• Water is also transferred through processes such as
infiltration, throughflow and surface runoff.
The hyrological cycle
The hydrological cycle as a system in a drainage basin

• It consists of inputs processes (flows and stores) and outputs.

• Inputs refer to precipitation coming into the drainage basin as rainfall, snow, hail, etc but
the main one is rainfall.
• Flows is when precipitation moves or is transferred from one storage to another. They are
throughputs or transfer routes of water from one strorage to another. These are:
• stem flow
• through fall
• overland flow/ surface runoff,
• infiltration
• percolation
• through flow
• base flow or groundwater flow
Stores

• Stores are where precipitation is temporarily kept or held in the

system. These are:
• interception storage
• surface storage
• soil moisture storage
• channel storage
• groundwater storage
Outputs

• Outputs refer to water leaving or being lost in the drainage basin. The
outputs are:
• evaporation
• transpiration
• Evapotranspiration
• River discharge
The flows

Flows above ground – throughfall, stemflow, overland flow, and

channel flow.
• Throughfall is whereby precipitation is not intercepted by the
vegetation and is able to fall directly onto the ground.
• Stemflow is water which has been intercepted by vegetation (trees)
and reaches the surface by flowing down the tree trunks or stems.
• Surface run off/overlandflow is the lateral/downslope movement of
water on the surface towards the river due to the force of gravity.
The flows
Flows below ground – infltration, percolation, throughflow, groundwater
flow or baseflow.
• Infiltration is when water on the ground surface moves vertically
downwards into the soil to form soil moisture.
• Percolation is the downward movement of infiltrated water through the
pores of the soil called percolines and through cracks and joints towards
the water table.
• Throughflow is the downslope/horizontal movement of water within the
soil towards the river channel.following gradient.
• Baseflow is the groundwater horizontal flow of water towards the river
from deeper in the groundwater zone due to gradient.
The Outputs

• Evaporation is the change of state of water to a gas when it is heated.

• Transpiration is the movement of water within plants (1) and its loss
as water vapour through the stomata of the leaves through heat
energy.
• River Discharge is the volume of water that passes through a cross-
sectional area in a river per second. It is measured in cumecs or cubic
meters per second.
Definition of stores :interception,surface, soil moisture, channel storage,groundwater storage

• Interception is when rainfall is temporarily trapped/captured by tree leaves

and branches. This water will then reach the ground through stem flow or
evaporate back into the atmosphere
• Soil moisture is the water that is held between soil particles after infiltration
in the aeration zone.. It is water held in pore spaces of soil.
• Groundwater is water that has infiltrated and percolated the soil and is held
below the water table. It is also called phreatic water
• Surface storage is water that is temporarily held on the surface in
depressions like small pools, dams and lakes.
• Channel storage is water that is kept within the river channel from one bank
to the other.
Groundwater

• Groundwater is water that has infiltrated and percolated the soil that
is held between the impermeable rock and below the water table.
• Water table
• This is a line (zone) separating the unsaturated zone and saturated
zone. It is the upper level of the saturated zone.
• It takes the shape of the relief and is low on lowlands and high on
uplands
• The water table rises if there is groundwater recharge but it is
lowered if there is groundwater loss.
Groundwater Recharge

• This refers to the refilling of water into soil pores where water has
dried up or has been extracted by human activities.
• Groundwater recharge occurs as a result of:
• Infiltration of part of the precipitation at the ground surface.
• Seepage from surface water bodies such as rivers, lakes and oceans.
• Artificial recharge from irrigation.
Losses of groundwater result from:

• Evapotranspiration especially where the water table is close

to the ground surface.
• Natural discharge by means of spring flow and seepage into
surface water bodies.
• Artificial abstraction through boreholes and wells.
Aquifers

• These are rocks which contain significant amounts of water.

• Aquifers are permeable rocks such as sandstones and limestones.
• The water in aquifers moves slowly and acts as a natural regulator in
the hydrological cycle by absorbing rainfall which otherwise would
reach streams rapidly.
• Aquifers maintain stream flow during long dry periods.
• Where water flow reaches the surface a spring may be found and this
becomes a source of water for a stream or river.
• A spring is natural outflow of water from the ground. It takes place
where the water table intersects with the surface.
River processes

Definition of terms
• River load- the material transported by a river i.e cobbles, clay, silt,
sand etc.
• River bed : the floor/bottom of the channel.
• River bank : the sides of the channel.
River erosion

• The main types of erosion include

a. abrasion /corrasion: this is the wearing away of the bed and bank by
the load carried by the river.
b. hydraulic action: this is when fast flowing water is forced into cracks,
thereby loosening and detaching materials from the channel sides.
c. corrosion / chemical erosion / solution: this is when rocks such as
limestone are dissolved in acid rainwater.
d. attrition – materials that are transported by the river collide getting
more rounded and reduced in size
Factors affecting erosion

Load
• the heavier and sharper the load the greater the potential for erosion
Velocity
• the greater the velocity the greater the potential for erosion
Gradient
• increased gradient increases the rate of erosion
Geology
• soft unconsolidated rocks such as sand and gravel are easily eroded
Discharge
• the greater the discharge the greater the potential for erosion
Human impact
• deforestation and dams interfere with the natural flow of the river and end up
increasing the rate of erosion.
River transport

• The main types of transport in a river include:

Traction
• involves movement of large particles / boulders by dragging or
rolling along the river bed.
Saltation
• is the bouncing of particles downstream along the river bed.
Suspension
• is when light particles are held up by the current of flowing water.
Solution
• is when soluble materials are carried in a dissolved state.
Floatation
Processes of river transport
River deposition

What is deposition?
This takes place when:
• the river’s velocity falls due to decrease in the gradient of the river.
• discharge gets reduced due to evaporation and high infiltration rates.
• the river enters a lake or sea and its competence is reduced to zero
• the river flows slowly on the inside of meanders.
• the channel bed widens causing increased friction which reduces the
river’s competence
• the river overflows its banks into the flood plain as velocity gets
reduced in the shallow waters e.g. the walo of river Senegal , the
Nile , the fadamas of Hausaland.
River energy

• this determines the river’s ability to erode, transport or deposit.

• About 95% of energy is used to overcome friction with the bed and banks.
Factors affecting river energy
1. Roughness of the channel
• The rougher the channel the more energy will be lost.
• Rough channel beds and banks reduce the river’s capacity to transport its
load.
• In a smooth channel there is less friction so more energy is available for
work.
• Channels with smooth beds and less obstacles have a higher capacity to
transport its load.
• A rough channel has more friction reducing channel energy while a smooth
channel has less friction leading to high river energy.
2. Gradient
• Steeper gradients should lead to higher velocities because of the
influence of gravity.
3. River velocity
• Is the speed at which water flows in the channel.
• It is measured in metres per second.
• The faster the velocity of the river, the larger the load which can be
transported.
4. River discharge

• Discharge is the volume of water passing a given point over a set

time.
• The higher the discharge, the greater the volume of the load being
transported.
• River discharge is illustrated using a storm hydrograph.
Storm/flood hydrograph

• it shows how discharge of a river varies over a short

time.
• It normally refers to an individual storm or a group of
storms of not more than a few days.
• Before the storm starts the main supply of water to the
stream is groundwater flow or baseflow.
• During the storm some of the water flows on the
surface as overland flow or surface runoff and this
reaches the river quickly.
Storm/flood hydrograph
Features of the storm hydrograph
• The rising limb shows us how quickly the flood waters begin to rise
• The recessional limb is the speed with which the water level in the
river declines after the peak.
• The peak flow is the maximum discharge of the river as a result of the
storm.
• Lag time is the time between the peak of the storm and the maximum
flow in the river.
River velocity across a meandering channel (i) At which point is deposition most likely P, Q, R or S?

(ii) Why is erosion more likely at point S than point P?

Comparison of velocities on straight and
meandering channels
• Lowest velocity is along the river bed and banks in both channels due
to friction.
• In both channels velocity is highest slightly beneath the surface of the
water because there is least friction.
• In a straight channel velocity is faster at the centre while on the
meandering channel velocity is faster close to the deeper bank.
• NB: Discharge, depth, width and velocity normally increase
downstream but channel roughness and gradient decrease
downstream. Although river gradients decrease downstream the
load carried is smaller, and therefore easier to transport.
Relationship between river velocity and river processes (Hjulstrom Curve)
Stream capacity-the total load actually transported by a river –determined by
discharge and velocity
Stream competence – maximum size of particle which a river is capable of
carrying
For transportation :

• smallest particles are moved at very low velocities because they are very light
• high velocities are required to transport pebbles , cobbles , boulders due to
their large size
• For erosion of particles :
• very small particles like silt and clay need very high velocities to be eroded
because of their coherent /cohesive nature
• cobbles and boulders require large velocities to be eroded because of their
large size
• sand particles require the least velocity to be eroded because they are less
coherent.
• NB: for any particle size , the velocity required for its erosion is higher than
that for it to be transported.
For deposition of particles :

• large / coarse particles are the first to be deposited when velocity

decreases due to their large size
• very light particles like clay and silt hardly settle even when velocity is
very low due to their light nature
River Profiles

• River profiles consist of long profile and cross profile.

The long profile is a line drawn from the source of the river to its
mouth showing how the gradient changes.
The cross profile is the shape of the channel from bank to bank.
Long and cross profiles
Upper / youthful course

• Long profile shows that the gradient is very steep.

• The cross profile shows a narrow V shaped valley.
• The river channel inside the valley is very shallow.
• erosion exceeds deposition with erosion being mainly vertical by
hydraulic action and abrasion.
• Transportation is of mainly large boulders by traction and
saltation.
• Deposition is very little, mainly the largest particles are deposited
on the river bed.
• Features likely to be found include waterfalls, rapids, potholes,
gorges and interlocking spurs.
Upper course of the river
Upper course of the river
Upper course of the river
Middle /mature course

• The long profile displays a moderately steep gradient.

• The cross profile shows an open valley with a channel which
is deeper.
• Erosion and deposition are balanced with erosion being
mainly lateral by abrasion and attrition.
• Transportation of materials is mainly by saltation and
suspension as particle size gets smaller.
• Deposition of sand and gravel occurs across the flood plain
as friction reduces river’s energy.
Middle course
Lower course

• the gradient is gentle, deposition exceeds erosion.

• The valley is wide and flat.
• The channel inside the valley is at its widest and deepest.
• Although velocity and discharge are highest, erosion is low
because turbulence is lower and particle size is small,
reducing abrasion.
• Transportation is mainly of smaller particles by suspension
and solution.
• Deposition of sand, silt and clay occurs on the flood plain and
in the river mouth as the sea absorbs river energy.
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS Waterfall
 Waterfall

• It is a sudden vertical drop that occurs along the course of a river.

• It is a large step in the river as a result of differential erosion.
• A waterfall is formed when a layer of more resistant rock lies on top of
less resistant rock.
• The rock layers are gently dipping downstream.
• There is more erosion of the less resistant rock since it more erodible.
• This forms a step.
• The water flows more rapidly over the step. This causes erosion by the
processes of hydraulic action and abrasion.
• Further erosion will produce a plunge pool at the bottom.
Waterfall
• The plunge pool is further eroded by cavitation (implosion of air
bubbles in the swirling water) causing undercutting.
• This produces an unsupported overhang. The weight of water above
the overhang together with the lack of support will result in the
eventual collapse of the overhang into the plunge pool.
• These fallen rocks are large and angular so are forced to swirl inside
the pool and further erode the bed.
• Continuation of the processes over a long period of time will result in
the headward retreating/migration of the waterfall upstream
causing a deep, steep sided , narrow, V-shaped valley called a gorge.
Formation of water fall
Waterfall
Gorge
• It is a deep, narrow ,steep-sided and v-shaped valley caused by
vertical erosion (hydraulic action, abrasion and corrosion)
• Common where waterfalls are receding or migrating upstream eg
below the Victoria Falls on the Zambezi river in Zimbabwe
• Gorges may also form due to faulting.
Gorge
Rapids
steep section of the river channel where flow of water is ruffled by alternating bands
hard and soft rock .
Rapids
• Rapids are areas of high velocity and turbulent flow along the river
profile.
• Rapids are produced over outcrops of resistant rock that often bring
about a steepening of the channel slope.
• the hard rock resists erosion and juts out on the river bed causing
turbulent flow.
• This more steepened slope will increase turbulence and hence erosive
capacity to form a rapid.
• With time, this can further be eroded to form a waterfall.
Interlocking spurs
• interlocking spurs are projections of highlands overlooking a river. The
river always avoids highlands and resistant rocks so meanders in the
uppercourse.
• This produces spurs which are projections of highlands overlooking a
river.
Interlocking spurs
Pot hole
this is a hole eroded in the solid rock of a river bed by the
abrasive action of stones being swirled around by the current
with time potholes join to form bigger holes.
Landforms due to both erosion & deposition
Meanders : are curving bends in a river channel.
Meanders

• They are formed by both processes of erosion and deposition within the channels
• Water naturally flows in a helical pattern.
• Helical flow sends the fastest current towards the outer bend of the channel causing
erosion.
• Eroded materials are transported towards the inner bend where there is slower
moving current causing deposition.
• lateral erosion is active where the current is swept to the outer concave bank
undercutting it to form a cliff.
• at the inner bank where the current is slower is there is deposition forming a slip off
slope or point bar.
• by undercutting and depositing at the bends the river develops ever wider
meanders .
Ox bow lake : a crescent shaped or half-moon shaped
feature formed from a meander.
Ox bow lakes

• continued erosion creates a narrow neck between two

meanders.
• Eventually, the neck is cut through and the river
creates a new channel across the neck of the
meander.
• The old mender then becomes an oxbow lake when
deposition seals the ends, completely separating it
from the river.
Depositional features
Levees
Levees

• These are banks of a river channel that are raised above the flood
plain
• They are formed when flood waters deposit coarse materials (gravel
and sand) on the edges of the channel as river energy is reduced by
friction.
• deposition occurs over a long period of time until the banks are raised
above the flood plain.
• when the river bursts its banks , finer materials are carried and
deposited on the flood plain
Flood plain
Flood plains

• These are flat strips of land on either side of the river and are
liable to flooding.
• They are bordered by bluffs.
• Bluffs are embankments marking the margin or edge of
thefloodplains.
• Deposition occurs on either side of the river banks when the river
floods or overflows its banks.
• Flooding causes friction thereby reducing the velocity of flowing
water leading fine sediments being deposited on the sides of the
river banks.
• layer upon layer of alluvium builds the plain with each episode of
flooding.
How human beings benefit from flood plains

• there is adequate water supply for irrigation purposes e.g.

Muzarabani along the Zambezi River
• water transport may be used where the river is navigable
• fertile alluvial soils are used for farming
• plenty of water leads to HEP generation
• tourism and recreation are promoted through water sports
(surfing, boat cruising)
• fishing is done to provide food
• there is adequate water supply for domestic uses.
Braided channel

• Braided channels occur when a river is transporting a high sediment load with seasonal variations in discharge.
• Braided channels form due to localized deposition on the lower course.
• This is because the lower course has gentle gradient which leads to reduced velocity.
• Reduced rainfall in the dry season as well as evaporation may also reduce discharge causing the river to lose
energy and to be overloaded.
• The river banks are unconsolidated and so easily erodable. This causes localized deposition on the bed
forming sandbars.
• With time, these sandbars get colonized by vegetation to form vegetated islands/eyots.
Braided channel
Problems associated with flood plains

• flooding leads to loss of life

• crops are destroyed by floods
• there is high prevalence of water borne diseases
• people may be attacked by crocodiles and hippos.
• siltation occurs due to stream bank cultivation.
Delta
a delta is a flat, low lying deposit of sediment found at the
mouth of the river.
Formation of a delta
• Deltas form when a river carrying its load meets the still waters of the sea.
• The river loses velocity leading to deposition of the river load.
• Continued deposition blocks the river’s main channel leading to formation of
distributaries.
• the river should contain a lot of load
• clay particles are needed for flocculation where particles coagulate in salty water,
become heavy and get deposited.
• There should be absence of strong currents that sweep sediments into the
deeper sea
• vegetation also increases the rate of deposition by slowing down the water
Delta types
these include arcuate , estsuarine and bird’s foot deltas

• Arcuate delta-a fan shaped delta whose coast forms an arc,

e.g. the Nile delta
• Bird’s foot-sediment deposits and the distributaries are
shaped like a birds’ foot e.g. on the mouth of river Omo
where it enters lake Rudolf
• Estuarine delta- a delta which forms within an estuary of a
river and composed of sand banks divided by narrow
channels e.g.at the Zambezi mouth. An estuary refers to a
wide part of a river where it flows into the sea.
Delta types
Case study : Niger Delta, Nigeria

Opportunities brought by deltas

• The delta region is covered by mangrove swamp. The swamp provides
mangrove trees which are used for fuelwood by locals
• the mangrove swamps provide a habitat for good rice growing as no
other plants can grow in such wet conditions
• fish farming is highly promoted where 20 000 people are engaged
providing the people with food, employment and income.
• the mangrove vegetation protects the land from erosion by root
binding from the sea waves.
• the delta has vast oil reserves which are being exploited by large
foreign companies such as BP and Shell
• ports have developed in the delta e.g. Port Harcourt and water
Problems Associated With Deltas

• there are floods due to summer rains which drown people and rice
fields
• there is high prevalence of water related water borne diseases
• there is high risk of oil spillages from oil mines , these contaminate
water causing suffocation of aquatic life.
Drainage Patterns
Importance of rivers to people

• they provide water for irrigation, domestic and recreational

facilities
• HEP is generated e.g. Kariba on the Zambezi
• They can be used as a means of transport
• waterfalls and rapids attract tourists who provide foreign
currency
• gold panning can be done on flood plains.
• Fishing is done to get fish to supplement diet and income
• Water sports can be done eg boating, swimming
• fertile alluvial soils are used for agriculture.
Flooding

This is when the river overflows its banks.

Natural causes
• high rainfall intensity compacts the ground promoting surface
runoff and this triggers flooding.
• snow melt is increasing due to global warming thereby promoting
flooding.
• Impermeable rocks and soils such as granite and clay respectively
promote high surface runoff which result in flood risk.
• tropical cyclones normally produce excessive prolonged rains
promoting flooding.
Human causes

• deforestation for settlement and farmland increases bare

surfaces which results in high rates of runoff triggering
flooding.
• Urbanisation results in the introduction of concrete
pavements and tarred surfaces which promote flooding.
• mismanagement of farm lands result in siltation of rivers
Impacts of flooding

• They lead to water borne diseases such as cholera and

typhoid.
• There is destruction of buildings and homes making
people homeless.
• Crop lands are destroyed leading to food shortages.
• They cause loss of life due to people drowning.
• Infrastructure such as roads and bridges is destroyed.
• Electricity and telephone poles collapse.
Ways of reducing floods

• Straightening river channels reduce overflow of water

on meanders.
• Building artificial levees makes sure all discharge is
accommodated within channels.
• Building dams controls flow of water in the river.
• Afforestation is to reduce or delay runoff.
Ways of reducing the impacts of floods

• Relocating people from low land areas reduces loss of life.

• emergency rescue teams are put in place to evacuate
affected people, to distribute food, medicines, clothing and
blankets.
• Straightening river channels reduce overflow of water on
meanders.
• Building artificial levees makes sure all discharge is
accommodated within channels.
• Building dams controls flow of water in the river.
• Afforestation is to reduce or delay runoff.
For a named river you have studied, describe the
causes and impacts of flooding. Explain what has
been done to reduce flooding.
Case Study. Flooding of the Mississippi River, USA
(MEDC)
• Mississippi is 3800km long
• Flows through ten states
• Has over 100 tributaries
• Has a drainage basin covering 1/3 of the USA
Causes of 1993 flooding

• Heavy rain in April 1993 saturated the upper Mississippi

basin
• Thunderstorms in June caused flashfloods
• Mid July 180mm of rain in one day
• Levees in nearby towns collapsed
 Effects

The 1993 Mississippi flood caused 43 deaths. 50,000 people

were e vacuated.The flood destroyed crops worth US$2.46
billion. Contents of and buildings themselves were destroyed
were destroyed. The flood also flooded the water treatment
plant in Alton, cutting off water to the town. It also destroyed
140 miles of roads and 8 bridges in Illinois. In Missouri, 13 air
ports were closed. River traffic stopped for several months.
Stagnant water attracted mosquitoes and rats. There was a total
of 12 billion dollars in damage.
 Management

To control floods in the Mississippi basin levees were heightened in to over

15 metres and were strengthened with concrete mattresses of 25m by 8m.
By 1993 there were almost 3000km of levees along the main river and its
tributaries. Mississippi was straightened and made shorter from 530 km to
300 km by cutting through necks of meanders to get water past towns more
quickly to the sea. Large spill ways were built to take excess water during
times of floods eg Bonnet Carre flood way diverts flood water into Lake
Pontchartrain and the sea. The flow of major tributaries (Missouri, Ohio and
Tennessee) was controlled by a series of dams. Afforestation was done to
reduce or delay runoff. Construction on floodplains was discouraged, for
example in St Louis.
River investigations ( P 4)

Safety precautions when conducting river investigations

• Wear protective clothing such as wellington boots and gloves.
• Wear waterproof clothing to keep warm.
• Keep on lookout for dangerous animals.
• Carry mobile phone for emergency.
• Complete fieldwork before it is dark.
• Don’t do fieldwork in a flooded, deep or fast flowing river.
How velocity is measured
• Hypothesis 1: velocity varies across the channel.
Hypothesis 2: velocity increases
downstream.
Materials needed : floats, stop watch, tape measure, poles, recording
sheet.
Procedure
• measure a distance of 10 m along a river using a tape measure and put
the starting line and finishing line.
• Put a float such as an orange or dog biscuit into the river.
• Time the float over the distance using a stop watch.
• repeat the process at different points across the channel and calculate
average.
• Calculate velocity by dividing distance by time.
Procedure
Problems which maybe encountered when
measuring river velocity

• There may be student error in timing of floats.

• floats may get stuck in the channel by water plants or objects such as
rocks.
• Floats may be affected by blowing away wind.
• Measurements may not be easy to take at different points because
floats may not move in a straight line.
Some improvements students can make to increase the
reliability and accuracy of their results.

• Repeat the investigation several times at the same site and calculate
average.
• conduct the investigation during a different season for comparison.
• increase the number of sites from which to conduct the investigation
• use a flowmeter – a digital equipment that is used to measure river
velocity within different parts of the river channel
How a flowmeter is used
How a flowmeter is used

• Put a flowmeter into the river holding it vertically.

• Stand downstream or on the side of the flow meter.
• Propeller must be facing upstream.
• When propeller spins, the display on the flow meter shows the
velocity of flow.
• Read the speed shown on the display.
• Several readings are taken at the same site and average is obtained.
Advanatages of a flowmeter

• It gives instant readings/faster

• It is precise or accurate
• It is easy to use
• There are less chances of making mistakes in reading
• It is easier to reset.
• Disadvantages of a flowmeter
• it is expensive
• battery may run out
River depth

• refers to the vertical height of water from the river bed to the water
surface .
• it is measured in metres by a metre rule
• How to measure river depth
• use a metre rule to measure depth at a chosen interval across the
channel.
• The zero end of the metre rule should settle on the river bed.
• Take the reading on the metre rule on the surface of the water.
• find the average depth by adding all the depths and divide by the
number of points
Measurement of river depth
Measurement of river width

• put ranging poles on either bank of the river.

• Stretch a tape measure across the channel from one pole to the
other.
• Make sure the tape measure is stretched tight.
• Take the reading from the tape measure and record.
River discharge

• refers to the volume of water passing through a given cross section of

the river per unit of time.
• It is measured in cubic meters per second using the formula :
• RIVER DISCHARGE (Q) = CROSS SECTIONAL AREA × VELOCITY
How to calculate river discharge

• measure the river velocity.

• measure the width of the river from bank to bank using a tape
measure
• measure the depth of the river at the centre using a metre rule from
bank to bank at 0.5 m intervals
• find the average depth from the respective depths measured
• then multiply river width by average depth to get cross sectional area.
• get river discharge by multiplying cross sectional area by river velocity.
Wetted Perimeter

• It is the part of the channel cross section (river banks and bed ) which
the water is in contact with
• How to measure the wetted perimeter
• use a chain
• a chain is be placed along the river bed from bank to bank , the end
points are knotted.
• measure the length of the wet part of the chain and record the length
in (m) on the recording sheet.
Particle size and shape

• rivers transport different particle sizes with various shapes.

• particle size decreases and shape smoothens downstream (rough
edged boulders are common in the upper course , by the time they
get to the lower course they will be smaller and smoother)
Describe how students can measure the rock size and shape.

• Hypothesis 1: pebble size decreases downstream.

• Hypothesis 2: pebble roundness increases downstream.
• a ruler can be used to measure the long axis of the pebble in mm
• to be more accurate a veneer callipers can be used to measure the
pebble size
• you tighten the callipers around the long axis of the pebble, remove the
pebble and measure the gap on the callipers using a ruler.
• use a roundness index chart to determine the rock shape
• use eye estimation to compare the roundness of the pebble with the
roundness index chart
Measurement of pebble size and shape
QN: Suggest improvements that could be taken to make their results on pebble size
and shape more reliable

• more survey sites should be chosen to give greater coverage.

• sample more rocks at such sites and find averages
• repeat survey in different seasons
• measure weight of rocks to determine size
• more students should use the roundness index chart to check the
Water Pollution Investigation

• How to investigate water pollution

• decide on the number of sites to be used for investigation along the
channel
• devise a suitable recording sheet for recording the results of the visual
survey i e checking on living organisms in the water such as fish and
vegetation.
• test acidity of water ( use a pH meter )
• test clarity of water ( use the filtration process )
• measure water temperature
Investigation of river gradient
How to conduct the investigation

• Put ranging poles along transect line in holes of same depth in the sand .
• Make sure the poles are vertical.
• Use tape measure to measure distance between the two ranging poles.
• Use a string to link the ranging poles at the same height.
• Hold a clinometer at the height marked by a string on the ranging poles.
• Allow the clinometers to adjust to the angle
• Read the angle and record it in the recording sheet.
Digital clinometer
Advantages of a digital clinometer

• It gives instant reading / faster / quicker

• it is precise / accurate measurement or reading / exact figure
• it is easy to use / clear to read
• there are less chances of making mistake in reading
• it is easier to reset
• it can send results to computer / save data
• it is easy to carry / portable
Disadvantages of a digital clinometer

• some students may not understand how to use the application

• phone may be dropped into river / phone is fragile / phone gets wet
• Phone may not be charged up/ battery may run out