Reliability

engineering
Definitions
 Reliability - The ability of an item to perform a
required function under stated conditions for a
stated period of time. It is usually denoted as
probability or as a success .

 Failure– The termination of ability of an item to

perform a required function.
 Observed Failure Rate – For a stated period in life of an
item, the ratio of the total number of failures in a sample to the
cumulative of the time on that sample. The observed failure
rate is associated with particular and stated time intervals(or
summation of intervals) in the life of the item and under stated
conditions.

 Observed Mean Time Between Failures(MTBF) – For a

stated period in the life of an item, the mean value of the
length of time between consecutive failures computed as the
ratio of the cumulative observed time to the number failures
under stated conditions.
 Observed mean time to failure (MTTF)-
For a stated period in the life of an item, the ratio of
the cumulative time for a sample to the total number
of failure in the sample during the period under
stated condition
Name Definition

Guarantee An assurance given by the manufacturer to the vendor that the product will work without
failure for a stated period of time

Warranty A written guarantee given to the purchaser of a new appliance, automobile, or other item by
the manufacturer or dealer, usually specifying that the manufacturer will make any repairs
or replace defective parts free of charge for a stated period of time.

Maintainability The measure of the ability of an item to be retained in or retained in or restored to a

specified condition when maintenance is performed by personnel having specified skill
levels, using prescribed procedures and resources
Applies to a major tasks where many repetitions are expected and where considerable time
is required

Availability A tool for measuring the percent of time an item or system is in a state of readiness where it is
operable and can be committed to use when called upon. Availability ceases because of a downing
event that causes the item/to system become unavailable to initiate a mission when called upon

Availability=MTBF/(MTBF+MTTR)
Reliability The ability of an item to perform a required function under stated conditions for a
stated period of time. It is usually denoted as probability or as a success .
Guarantee Warranty Maintainability Availability Reliability

An assurance A written guarantee The measure of the A tool for The ability of an
given by the given to the purchaser ability of an item to be measuring the item to perform a
manufacturer to of a new appliance, retained in or retained percent of time an required function
the vendor that automobile, or other in or restored to a item or system is in under stated
the product will item by the specified condition a state of readiness conditions for a
work without manufacturer or dealer, when maintenance is where it is operable stated period of
failure for a usually specifying that performed by
and can be time. It is usually
stated period of the manufacturer will personnel having
time make any repairs or specified skill levels, committed to use denoted as
replace defective parts using prescribed when called upon. probability or as a
free of charge for a procedures and Availability ceases success .
stated period of time. resources because of a
Applies to a major downing event that
tasks where many causes the item to
repetitions are become unavailable
expected and where to initiate a mission
considerable time is when called upon
required
Availability=MTB
F/(MTBF+MTTR)
Why engineering items failed?
 The design might be inherently incapable, the more
complex the design ,more the difficult to overcome the
problem
 The item might be overstressed in some way
 Failures can be caused by wear out. Sufficiently strong
at the start of the life and become weaker with age
 Failures can be caused by other time dependent
mechanism such as battery run down, creep in turbine
caused simultaneously by high temperature and tensile
stress
 Failures can be caused by sneaks . Sneak is the
condition in which the system does not work
properly even though every part does
 Failures can be caused by errors such as incorrect
specification, design ,fault assembly or test
 There are many other potential causes to failure
such as oil leaks noisy ,display flickering etc.
 Knowing ,as far as is practicable, the potential
causes of failures is fundamental to preventing
them
 Failures might be caused by variation
 What is reliability engineering
 Manufacturers often suffer high costs of failure under
warranty
 Reliability is usually concerned with failures in the time
domain. This distinction marks the difference between
traditional quality control and reliability engineering
 Whether failures occur or not and their times to
occurrence can seldom be forecast accurately .reliability
is therefore an aspect of engineering uncertainty
 Whether an item will work for a particular period is a
question which can be answered as a probability.
 Ultimately reliability engineering is effective
management of engineering
 Need for
Reliability
Non-Repairable items
 Reliability is the survival probability over the items expected
life ,or for a period during its life, when only one failure can occur
 The instantaneous probability of the first and only failure is called
hazard rate
 MTTF , the expected life by which a certain percentage might have
failed is used here.
 The non repairable parts may be individual parts such as bulb,
transistor or systems comprised of many parts such as spacecraft,
microprocessor
 When a part fails in a non repairable system, the system fails, hence
the reliability is function of the time to the first part failure
Repairable items
 Reliability is the probability that the failure will not
occur in the period of interest, when more than one
failure can occur .
 It can also be expressed as failure rate or the rate of
occurrence of failures
 Reliability is characterized by MTBF, but only under the
particular condition of a constant failure rate
 In a repairable system which contains which contains a
part type ,the part will contribute by that amount to the
system failure rate
Bath tub curve

 What: the concept is derived from the human life

experience involving infant mortality, chances of
failures, plus a wear out period of life since data
for births and deaths is accumulated by
government agencies. Most equipment lacks the
birth/death recording by govt. and most non-
human systems can be regenerated to live/die
many times before relegation to the scrap heap
Bath Tub Curve
 Why: failures rate are different for both people
and equipment at different phase of operation and
the medicine to be applied to both humans and
equipment need to be considered for effectively
treating the roots of the problem
Mean Median Mode
The sample mean can It is the measure of It is the value at
be used to estimate the central tendency, which the distribution
the population mean , which is the mid point peaks.
which is the average of the distribution
of all possible It is the point at which
outcomes half the measured
values fall to either
side
Distribution Plots
Parametric Analysis
 Parametric Analysis is fitting the data to a known distribution
and estimating the parameters of the distribution.
 Parametric Analysis is done by using two most commonly used
methods :
-Regression Analysis
-Most Likelihood Method
 Having got a fit, a statistic is calculated to estimate the
goodness of the fit after which a confidence interval of the
parameters can be found.
Regression Analysis
 Most commonly used continuous distribution are
- Weibull Distribution
- Normal Distribution
- Lognormal Distribution
- Exponential Distribution
 First we linearize the basic CDF by making the
required transformation. From that we find
parameters of the distribution.
Linearized Formulae for Weibull
Distribution
 Xi=ln(ti)
 Yi=ln ln[1/( 1-F(ti) )]
where F(ti) is Cumulative Failure Function
 F(ti)= (i-0.3)/(n+4)

(For ith failure out of n components)

 β= Slope
 η = exp(-abs[intercept]/ β)
 A straight line is fitted using the X and Y data
points by minimizing the sum of squares of
the distance of the data points from the fitted
line. The distance can be in vertical or
horizontal direction.

 There is a correlation coefficient, referred to

as r whose values varies from -1 to 1. The
more the value of r^2 reaches 1 the more
linear is the relation between X and Y.
To see the complete
solution click here
Most Likelihood Method(MLE)
 It also helps in estimating the parameters of
distribution.
 It does that by defining a likelihood function
which is function of parameters of the
distribution.
 The Likelihood function is maximized to find
the parameters of the distribution.
Life Testing Data Types Used for
MLE Estimates
With Replacement
TYPE I
Time Terminated
Without
Replacement
Life Testing

With Replacement
TYPE II
Failure Terminated
Without
Replacement
MLE Weibull Parameter Estimation
r

t
 
i ln ti  (n  r )t s ln t s
1 1 r
g ( )  i 1
   ln ti  0
r
 r i 1
 ti  (n  r )ts
 

i 1
1/ 
1  r
 
    ti  (n  r )t s  


 r  i 1 
 ts =1 For Complete Data
=Test time For TYPE I Data
= tr For TYPE II Data

 ti is time taken for ith failure

 r is the number of failures
 n is total number of components
 Find β for g(β)=0
 Substitute that in second equation and find η
For Completely
Solved Solution
Click Here
Goodness Of Fit (GOF)
 r^2 value in the case of Regression analysis is
used to find goodness of fit.
 For MLE we use the following GOF statistic.
• Chi-Square Method
• Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
 Often data would fit many distribution. Hence we
have to find GOF so as to find the perfect
distribution.
Chi Square Test
 Applicable to all distributions having large sample
size.

 Applied to both discrete and continuous data.

 The probabilities are based on null hypothesis

Formula Used
 Χ^2 =
where k=number of classes
Oi=Observed number of failures in ith class
Ei=Expected number of failures in ith class
n= Sample Size

 Degrees of Freedom=k-1-number of estimated

parameters
Example
There are 35 failure times listed below. Check if the
distribution follows exponential distribution.
GIVEN DATA
1476 300 98 221 157
182 499 552 1563 36
246 442 20 796 31
47 438 400 279 247
210 284 553 767 1297
214 428 597 2025 185
467 401 210 289 1024
Group the result in specific bounds
Upper Bound Number of failure times
observed in that bound

350 18

750 10

2026 7
 Cumulative Failure Function, F(ti)=1-exp(-
λti)
for exponential distribution.
Thus expected number of failures in the
bound is given by
E(ti)=number of components*expected
failure(F(ti))
Let λ=0.00206
E1=35*(1-exp(-350*0.00206))=17.98
E2=35*(1-exp(-350*0.00206)-P1)=9.55
E3=35*(1-P2-P1)=7.47
 From the formula, we find the value of χ^2

 Degree of Freedoms, k=3-1-1=1

 From the Statistic table for Chi-Square we

get, for k=1 and χ^2=0.0496, α is between
10% to 20% (α should be less than 90%).
Hence, the Null Hypothesis is accepted. Thus,
we can say that the distribution is
Exponential.
For completely
solved solution
click here
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
 Itis also used to find the GOF but that it can be
used even to small sample size.

 Formulae Used
Sn(tn)=0 For -∞<t1
=i/n For ti<t< ∞;i=1,2….n-1
=1 For tn<t<∞
K – S = max(|F(ti)-Sn(ti)|,|F(ti)-Sn(ti-1)|)

Where
F(ti) is Cumulative failure of the distribution
ti is the Time taken for ith Failure
n is sample size
Example
 The following 14 observations are on the failure time
of a component in hours. Test the hypothesis that the
failure time is normal.

For normal distribution,

z= (x-μ)/σ
where μ is the mean
σ is the standard deviation

Cumulative Failure Function,

F(ti)=(1/σ √2)℮^(-0.5)[(x- μ)/σ]^2
 GIVEN DATA
i TTF i TTF
1 61.6 8 72.7
2 63.4 9 73
3 65.1 10 75.3
4 65.5 11 77.1
5 70 12 78.4
6 72.3 13 83.2
7 72.5 14 83.5
For Completely Solved
Solution Click Below
K-S Test.xlsx
Reliability Block Diagram
 Systems are composed of components
 RBD is a method of evaluating the reliability
of the system by the establishing following
relationship
 Series
 Parallel
 Combination of both
 These structure helps in understanding logic
relationship
Series configuration
1 2 n

 Failure of any one component in the block will lead to

the failure of the entire system
 Rs - system reliability
 E1 - event where component 1 does not fail
 E2 - event where component 2 does not fail
 R1 - reliability of component 1
 R2 – reliability of component 2
Formula
Rs = P(E1 E2 )
= P(E1) P(E2)
= R1 (R2 )
Therefore the system reliability must be greater than
the individual component reliability
i.e. All component's must have high reliability in this
configuration
Parallel configuration
 In a parallel system all elements must fail for the
system to fail
1

n
formula
RS=1-(1-R1)(1-R2)
Generalizing
Rs=1- [1- Ri (t) ]
Combination of parallel and series
Example
 If R1=R2 =0.90,R3=R6=0.98,R4=R5=0.99 considering as
constant failure rate
Solution:
Ra=1-(0.10)^2
Rb=[1-(0.10)^2](0.98)
=0.9702
Rc=(0.99)^2
=0.9801
& Rs=[1-(1-0.9702)(1-0.98)](0.98)
=0.9794
FAULT TREE ANALYSIS
 An undesired event is defined
 The event is resolved into its immediate causes
 This resolution of events continues until basic
causes are identified
 A logical diagram called a fault tree is constructed
showing the logical event relationships
ELEMENTS
 FTA is a deductive analysis approach for resolving
an undesired event into its causes
 FTA is a backward looking analysis, looking
backward at the causes of a given event
 Specific stepwise logic is used in the process
 Specific logic symbols are used to to illustrate the
event relationships
 A logic diagram is constructed showing the event
relationships.
USES
 FTA is used to resolve the causes of system failure
 FTA is used to quantify system failure probability
 FTA is used to evaluate potential upgrades to a
system
 FTA is used to optimize resources in assuring
system safety
 FTA is used to resolve causes of an incident
 FTA is used to model system failures in risk
assessments
FOUR STEPS
1. Define the undesired event to be analyzed (the
focus of the FTA)
2. Define the boundary of the system (the scope of
the FTA)
3. Define the basic causal events to be considered
(the resolution of the FTA)
4. Define the initial state of the system
BASIC EVENTS
BASIC GATES
Example
Specifications
 Undesired top event: Motor does not start when
switch is closed
 Boundary of the FT: The circuit containing the
motor, battery, and switch
 Resolution of the FT: The basic components in the
circuit excluding the wiring
 Initial State of System: Switch open, normal
operating conditions
Fault tree
The Top Event of the Fault Tree
 The top event should describe WHAT the event is
and WHEN it happens
 The top event is the specific event to be resolved
into its basic causes
EX:
1. Fuel Supply System Fails to Shutoff after the
fueling phase
2. Launch Vehicle Fails to Ignite at Launch
OR gate
 The OR Gate represents the logical union of the
inputs: the output occurs if any of the inputs occur
 The OR gate is used when an event is resolved
into more specific causes or scenarios
 The OR gate is used when a component failure is
resolved into an inherent failure or a command
failure
 The OR gate is used when an event is described in
terms of equivalent, more specific events
AND gate
 The AND Gate represents the logical intersection of
the inputs, the output occurs if all of the inputs occur
 The OR gate is used when an event is resolved into
combinations of events that need to occur
 The AND gate is used when a redundant system is
resolved into multiple subsystems that need to fail
 The AND gate is used when a system failure is
resolved into conditions and events needed to occur
 Developing FTA
1.Define the top event as a rectangle
2.Determine the immediate necessary and sufficient events
which result in the top event
3.Draw the appropriate gate to describe the logic for the
intermediate events resulting in the top event
4. Treat each intermediate event as an intermediate level top
event
5. Determine the immediate, necessary and sufficient causes for
each intermediate event
6. Determine the appropriate gate and continue the process
Key attributes
 Top Event-What specific event is being analyzed?
 Boundary-What is inside and outside the analysis?
 Resolution-What are the primary causes to be
resolved to?
 Initial State-What is assumed for the initial
conditions and states?
FAULT VS FAILURE
•The intermediate events in a fault tree are called faults

•The basic events, or primary events , are called failures if

they represent failures of components
•It is important is to clearly define each event as a fault or
failure so it can be further resolved or be identified as a
basic cause
*Write the statements that are entered in the event boxes as
faults; state precisely what the fault is and the conditions
under which it occurs. Do not mix successes with faults*
Petri nets
 A petri nets is general purpose graphical and mathematical tool
describing relations existing between conditions and events.
The basic symbol of petri nets include
: place , denotes events
: immediate transition , denotes event transfer
with no delay
: timed transition , denotes event transfer the period of tie
delay
: arc, between places and transitions
: token, contained in places , denotes the data
: inhibitor arc , between places and transitions
Basic Structure :
 The transition is said to fire if input places satisfy an
enabled condition. Transition firing will remove one
token from each of its input places and put one token
into all of its output places. There are two types of
input place for the transition namely specified type
and conditional type. The former one has single
output arc whereas the latter one has multiples.
Tokens in the specified type place have only one
outgoing destination I,e if the input places holds a
token then the transition fires and gives the output
places a token. However tokens in conditional type
place have more than one outgoing paths that may
lead the system to different situations.
 There are three types of transitions that are classified
based on time. Transition with no time delay are
called immediate transitions while those need a
certain time delay are called timed transition. The
third type is called a stochastic transition. It is used for
modeling a process with random time. Owing to
variety of logical relations that can be represented
with petri nets, it is powerful tool for modeling
system. Petri nets an be used not only for simulation,
reliability analysis, and failure monitoring, but also
for dynamic behavior observation. This greatly helps
fault tracing and failure state analysis. Moreover, the
use if petri nets can improve the dialogue bet analysis
and designer of a system.
Minimum cut sets
To identify the minimum cut sets in a petri net the matrix
method is used, as follows

1.Put down the number of the input places in the row if the
output place is connected by multi arcs from transition .
This accounts for OR models

2.If the output place is connected by one arc from a

transition then numbers of the input places should be put
down in a column. This accounts for the and models
3. The common entry located in rows is the entry shared by
each row

4. Starting from the top event down to the basic event s until
all the places are replaced by basic events , the matrix is thus
formed, called the basic event matrix, the column vector of the
matrix constitute cut sets

5. Remove the super sets from the basics event matrix and the
remaining column vector become the minimum cut sets
 Minimum cut sets can be derived in an opposite,
bottom up , direction , that is from basics places to
the top place . Transition with T=0 are called
immediate transition . If the petri nets is
immediate transition , i.e. the token transfer
between places do not take time, then can be
absorbed to a simplified form called the equivalent
petri net. After absorption, all the remaining place
are basic events . The equivalent petri nets exactly
constitutes the minimum cut sets, i.e. the input of
each transition represents a minimum cut sets
Monte Carlo simulation
 In a Monte Carlo simulation, a logical model of
the system being analyzed is repeatedly evaluated,
each run using different values of the distributed
parameters
 The selection of parameters values is made
randomly but with probabilities governed by the
relevant distribute functions
 Monte carlo simulation can be used for system
reliability and availability modeling , using
suitable computer programs. Since Monte carlo
simulation involves no complex mathematical
analysis, it is an attractive alternative approach.it
is relatively easy way to model complex systems ,
and the input algorithm are easy to understand
 One problem in this methods is that its expensive
use of compute time
 Since the simulation of probabilistic events
generates variable results, in effect simulating the
variability of real life, it is usually necessary to
perform a number of runs in order to obtain
estimates of mean and variance of the output
parameters of interest such as availability number
of repairs arising and facility utilization on the
other hand , the effect of variation can be
assessed .
Design analysis methods
 Design analysis methods have been developed to highlight
critical aspects and to focus attention on possible shortfalls
 Design analyses are sometimes considered tedious and
expensive
 In most case the analyses will show that nearly all aspects of
the design are satisfactory, and much more effort will have
been expended in showing this than in highlighting a few
deficiencies
 The tedium and expense can be greatly reduced by good
planning and preparation and by the use of computerized
methods ,.
The main reliability design analysis technique
described
1.Quality function deployment
2.Reliability prediction
3.Load-strength analysis
4.Failure modes, effects and critically analysis
5.Fault tree analysis
6.Hazard and operability study
7.Parts materials and process review
8.Others, including human aspects manufacturing,
maintenance, etc..
Quality function development
 QFD is a bad transition of a good reliability
technique for getting the voice of the customer
into the design process so the product the
customer desires.in particular ,it is applicable to
soft issues that are difficult to specify
 This method helps to pinpoint what to do, the best
way to accomplish the objective the best order for
achieving the design objective and staffing asserts
to complete the task
 Itis a major up front effort to learn and understand
the customer’s requirement and the approach that
will satisfy their objectives
 The methodology is used as a team approach to
solving problems and satisfying customers ,
beginning with a listing
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis(FMEA)
 Failure mode and effect analysis is the study of
potential failures that might occur in any part of a
system to determine the probable operation success.
 When criticality analysis is added for sophisticated
studies the method is known as FMECA.
 The basic thrust of the analysis tool is to prevent
failures using a simple and cost effective analysis
that draws on the collective information of the team
to find problem and resolve them before they occur
 The analysis is known as a bottom-up (inductive)
approach to finding each potential mode of failure
that might occur for every component of a
system .it also used for determining the probable
effect on the system operation of each failure
mode and , in turn on probable operational success
 FMEA can be performed from different
viewpoints such as safety, mission success, repair
costs, failure modes, reliability reputation
 FMEA is most productive when performed during
the design process to eliminate potential failures it
can also be performed on existing systems
 Theanalysis can be conducted in the design room
or on the shop floor and it is an excellent tool for
sharing the experience to make the team aware of
details that are known to one person but seldom
shared with the team .
Accelerated testing
 A test method of increasing loads to quickly produce
age to failure data with only a few data points are then
scaled to reflect normal loads
 The benefits of this testing is to save time and money
while quantifying the relationship between stress and
performance along with identifying design at low cost
 It is used to correlate with real life conditions
 It is useful method for solving old, nagging problems
within a production process
 Accelerated testing shortens the test tie as the tests
are conducted at higher stress levels to expediting
the failure tie to be days instead of month or years
 Challenges faced by designer :

1.Long test time to complete life testing of product

2.Constraints on timelines
3.Cost as function of time
4.Reliability growth
 Care has to be taken that the stress or the agent of
failure does not results in failure in another failure
mode than the one being evaluated
 Acceleration rate must be uniform
Types of ALT
 Qualitative Accelerated Testing
 HALT
 HASS
 Quantitative Accelerated Testing
 SSALT
 CSALT
 CISALT
Highly Accelerated Testing(HALT)
 To identify potential failure modes or uncover
defects of a product.
 Test the component to failure under highly
stressed conditions.
 Study the failure modes and analyze to the root
cause.
 Fix the root cause to make the product more
robust.
 Does not help in predicting the life of the product.
Highly Accelerated Stress Screening
(HASS)
 Used to monitor the production process.

 All products are subjected to the same stresses

during HALT but, at a lower level.

 It identifies process related defects.

Quantitative Accelerated Testing
 Planned/Controlled accelerated testing from which
TTF under normal usage conditions can be derived.
 Models to be used for a specific agent of failure have
been postulated.
 Accelerated Factor(AF)=TTFnormal/TTFstress
 AF is used to derive the normal TTF from accelerated
TTF.
 Quantitative ALT helps predict the life of the product.
Improving the process
 Continuous improvement nearly always leads to reduced
costs , higher producitvity,and higher reliability
 Methods that are available for process development are as
follows
 Simple charts
 Control charts
 Multi-vari charts
 Statistical methods
 Quality circles
 Zero defects
Simple charts
 A variety of simple charting techniques can be used to
help to identify and solve process variability
problems.
 the pareto chart is often is used as starting point to
identify most important problems and most likely
causes.
 Measles chart is used when problems are distributed
over an area
 The cause and effect diagram also called fishbone or
ishikawa diagram can be used to structure and record
problem solving and process improvement efforts.
The main problem is indicated on the horizontal line
and possible causes are shown as branches which
inturn can have subcases
Control charts
While using control charts it is monitored
continually to find trends that might indicate special
causes of variation .trends can be continually run
high or low or it can be a cyclic pattern. A
continuous high or low trend indicates a need for
process or measurement adjustment. A cyclic trend
might be caused by temperature fluctuation, process
drifts between settings change of materials etc…
Multi-vari charts
 A multi-vari chart is a graphical method for
identifying the major causes of variation in a
process. Multi vari charts can be used for process
development and for problem solving, and they
can be very effective in reducing the number of
variables to include in a statistical experiment.
Multi-vari charts show whether the major causes of
variation are spatial, cyclic or temporal. A parameter
being monitored is measured in different position s
at different points in the production cycle at different
times. The results are plotted against two
measurement locations, e.g. diameter at each end of
the shaft, plotted against batch number from setup. It
shows that batch to batch variation is the most
significant cause, with a significant pattern of end to
end variation(taper).
Statistical Methods
This method for analysis of variation can be used effectively
for variation reduction in production process. They should be
used for process improvement, in the same way as for
product and process initial design. If a particular process has
been the subject of such experiments during development,
then the results can be used to guide studies for further
experiments.
It is also used to identify the major causes of
variation, prior to setting up statistical experiments. This way
the number of variables to be investigated can be reduced
leading to cost savings .
Quality Circles
It is the most widely used method world wide. A
quality circle team consisting of operators is formed.
This manage themselves, select leaders and
members, and address the problems. They also
suggest improvement if it under their control or they
recommend it to the management.
The quality circle are taught to use analytical
techniques to help identify problems and generate
solutions. These are called the seven tools of quality.
The Seven tools of quality are
1. Brainstorm, to identify and prioritize problems
2. Data collection
3. Data analysis methods, including measles chart,
trend charts and regression analysis
4. Pareto chart
5. Histogram
6. Cause and Effect diagram
7. Statistical Process Control(SPC) chart
Failure Reporting Analysis and
Corrective Action System(FRACAS)
 Failure reporting and analysis is an important part
of the QA function. The system must provide for
1.Reporting of all production test and inspection
failures with sufficient detail to enable investigation
and corrective action to be taken
2.Reporting the results of investigation and action
3. Analysis of failures pattern and trends, and
reporting on these
4.Continuos improvement by removal of causes
 The data system must be computerized for economy and
accuracy modern ATE sometimes includes direct test data
recordings and inputting to the central system by
networking the data analysis must provide pareto analysis
, probability plots and trend analysis for management
 Production defect data reporting and analysis must be
very quick to be effective. Trends should be analyzed
daily , or weekly atmost, particularly for high rates of
production , to enable timely corrective action to be taken
. The data analysis system also necessary for indicating
areas for priority action, using the pareto principle of
concentrating action on the few problem area that
contribute to the most to the quality cost . For this
purpose longer term analysis is necessary
 Defective component should not be scrapped
immediately, but should be labeled and stored for
the period , say one or two months , so that they
are available for more detail investigation if
necessary.
 Production defect data should not be analyzed in
isolation by people whose task is primarily the
data management. the people involved must
participate to ensure that the data interpreted by
those involved and that practical results are
derived . the quality circle approach provides very
effectively for this
 Production defect data are important for
highlighting possible in service reliability problems.
Many in-service failure modes manifest themselves
during production inspection and testing. For ex, if a
component or process generates failure on the final
functional test, and these are connected before
delivery , it is possible that the failure mechanism
exist in product which pass test and are shipped .
Metal surface protection and soldering processes
present such risks . Therefore production defects
should always be analyzed to determine the likely
effects on reliability , external failure cost and all
internal production quality cost.