Micrograph of intestinal villa in X-Ray of a swallowing test Internal folds in the stomach

INTESTINAL MUCOSA MUCOSA (RUGAE)

Digestive system
One of the four systems involved in nutrition
 Functions of the digestive system
• Food preparation for ingestion
• Neutralization of undesired (toxines,
indigestible) chemicals or microorganisms
present in food.
• Extraction of nutrients form food (digestion)
• Absorption of nutrients to bloodstream
• Reabsorption of water to bloodstream and final
elimination (egestion) of food remains.
Anatomy of the digestive system
MOUTH
PALATE
UVULA
TONGUE
TEETH PHARYNX
• TWO BASIC PARTS: OESOPHAGUS

SALIVARY
• DIGESTIVE TRACT GLANDS

• Group of tube-like organs through which food is

ingested, experiences changes leading to the
extraction of nutrients (digestion,), absorption and LIVER
final egestion of food remains. MOUTH,PHARYNX, GALL BLADDER STOMACH
OESOPHAGUS, STOMACH, SMALL AND LARGE PANCREAS
INTESTINES, ANUS.
SMALL LARGE
INTESTINE INTESTINE
DUODENUM Transverse
• AUXILIARY GLANDS YEYUNUM
Ascending
ILEUM
• Organs that secrete chemicals (DIGESTIVE JUICES) Cecum
which break down food into nutrients and help in Descending
the abosorption of nutrients: SALIVARY GLANDS, APPENDIX Sygma
Rectum
LIVER, GALL BLADDER, PANCREAS, GASTRIC RECTUM
GLANDS, INTESTINAL GLANDS.
 STAGES OF DIGESTION
• In order to extract nutrients from food, the digestive process that
takes place in the digestive system shows some processes that can be
studied or divided into 4 major consecutive stages or phases:

• INGESTION. DIGESTION. ABSORPTION. EGESTION.

• INGESTION: Food is prepared to be sent through the tract easily and safely:
chewed into small pieces, moisturized with saliva and softened enough to be
shallowed and moved onwards through the tract in the form of a FOOD BOLUS.
MOUTH, PHARYNX and OESOPHAGUS
• DIGESTION: Chemical breakdown of food into nutrients (macromolecules:
proteins, lipids, glucids, vitamins, etc.) and finally their small constituents
(micromolecules as amino acids, fatty acids, monosaccharides, etc.) so that they
can be absorbed to bloodstream: STOMACH, LARGE AND SMALL INTESTINES.
AUXILIARY GLANDS.
• ABSORPTION: Passage of nutrients, wáter and minerals (micromolecules) from
tract to bloodstream thanks to stomach and intestinal MUCOSAS (enterocytes)
and bacterial flora in the large intestine. STOMACH, INTESTINES
• EGESTION: Undigested (or non-digestible) remains of food (fiber, fats, bones,
etc.) are eliminated in the form of FAECES: LARGE INTESTINE and ANUS.
Elimination of some water with faces is necessary for a safe DEFECATION, but
large intestine retains most of the water of the liquid content in the intestines in
order to keep an adequate hydric balance
 CHEMICAL and MECHANICAL
DIGESTION
• MECHANICAL DIGESTION: processes leading to reduce food into small,
soft pieces suitable to be passed through the digestive tract, avoiding any
injuries to the tract and facilitating further chemical breakdown of food.
• MASTICATION (CHEWING) AND SWALLOWING. PERISTALSIS(PERISTALTIC MOVEMENTS)

https://youtu.be/R-OhCLIkP5U
https://youtu.be/qzRK6A82cx4 https://youtu.be/SBbNxM7g2vg
 CHEMICAL and MECHANICAL
DIGESTION
• CHEMICAL DIGESTION: Thanks to DIGESTIVE JUICES (a specific type of
ENZYMES), macromolecules of food are broken down into small organic
molecules, only way for nutrients to be absorbed to blood

• HOW MECHANICAL FACILITATES CHEMICAL DIGESTION. TABLE OF ENZYMES, SUSTRATES AND PRODUCTS

Chewing food makes it easier for digestive juices to

break down food (increased surface for chemical attack)
 CHEMICAL and MECHANICAL
DIGESTION
• CHEMICAL DIGESTION (STOMACH): The stomach stores 1,5 L of food for 4-5
hours during which the food bolus mixes with gastric juices thanks to
peristaltic wave-like movements of the stomach forming a paste like
mixture called CHYME. Stomach initiates the digestion of PROTEINS.

Gastric folds, called RUGAE,

help the tomach to expand
and accomodate large
quantities of food and
perform PERISTALSIS

Passage of food to and from the stomach is regulated by CHYME is slowly released to the DUODENUM (first section
ring-like muscles called sphincters (CARDIA, PYLORUS) of the SMALL INTESTINE) through the PYLORIC SPHINCTER
Gastric glands secrete significant amounts of HYDROCHLORIC ACID (HCl), helping to digest proteins and
eliminating toxines and bacteria present in food. Excess production of HCl can cause STOMACH ULCERS
 Hydrochloric acid and stomach ulcers
• GASTRIC GLANDS secrete HYDROCHLORIC ACID (HCl) in order to help
activate PROTEASES (Pepsin) that digest PROTEINS, but also they
colaborate in eliminating toxines and microorganisms that may come
together with food.

Excess production of HCl

(sometimes associated to
big meals) can lead to
stomach ulcers. Other
ulcers can be caused by
Scherichia coli infections in
the digestive tract.
 CHEMICAL and MECHANICAL
DIGESTION
• CHEMICAL DIGESTION (SMALL INTESTINE): The small intestine is a 7 meter
long tube organ inside which intestinal, pancreatic juices and bile from the
gall bladder mix with the CHYME forming the CHYLE. Small molecules are
obtained finally from macromolecules and absorbed to the blood stream.
DIGESTION OF LIPIDS, GLUCIDS AND PROTEINS ENDS HERE
INTESTINAL VILLI are multiple microscopic folds in the
intestinal mucosa that increase the surface area for
digestion and absorption

Remains of non-absorbed CHYLE are released into the LARGE

INTESTINE to start the last part of the digestive process.
 ABSORPTION: INTESTINES AND LIVER
• Major absorption of nutrients takes place in the SMALL INTESTINE
through INTESTINAL VILLI, passing nutrients to the PORTAL VEIN,
which sends all absorbed nutrients to the LIVER
THE LIVER works as a TOLL ORGAN that receives and checks all nutrients
absorbed in our SMALL INTESTINE, prior to be sent to all other organs and cells
of our body.

1) STORES SIMPLE SUGARS (GLUCOSE) AS POLYSACCHARIDES (GLYCOGENE,

our medium-term RESERVE OF ENERGY: 200 GR, up to 48 hours) and
RELEASES BACK GLUCOSE to blood if cells need it, by breaking down stored
GLYCOGENE.
2) Together with our PANCREAS, contributes to REGULATE GLYKEMIA (sugar
level in blood).
3) ELIMINATES ALCOHOL AND DRUGS
4) Produces bile (later storaged in the GALL BLADDER) BILE EMULSIFIES FATS,
so they can be easily absorbed to blood.
EGESTION
• Elimination of non digested food goes through the formation of
FAECES, a mixture of fats and dietary fiber, together with some
water and MUCOSA remains)
• FAECES formation plays a key role in the absorption of water and
basic hydric regulation avoiding dehydration. Faeces are
eliminated thanks to PERISTALTIC REFLEX MOVEMENTS of the
large intestine, rectum and anus.

• Intestinal symbiotic bacterial populations (called INTESTINAL

FLORA) live in our intestine, helping us to break down last FOOD
remains and to absorb water and salts. In exchange they
synthesize significant amounts of Vitamin B12
• Illnesses that lead to COLITIS (destruction of FLORA and
INTESTINAL MUCOSA INFLAMATION) provoke DIARRHEA, which
could end in DEHYDRATION
Intestinal flora is a significant
part of our inmune system,
protecting us against infections
by external bacteria