AEC 612: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY FOR

SOCIAL SCIENCES (1+1)

M.Sc., (Ag) 2017- ‘18

Course Teacher: Dr. K.Mani

Professor and Head

Department of Agricultural Economics

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Coimbatore – 641 003.
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 CHAPTER I
IMPORTANCE AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH
• Man has an instinct of inquisitiveness which derives him
probe and attain more understanding of the unknown.
Four methods of understanding or knowing:
•Tenacity: People know something to be true because a lot of
people believe it to be true.
•Authority: A well respected / authoritative source says that
something is so, then it is widely accepted.
•Intuition (also known as Prior method): Intuitive
prepositions should agree with reasons and not necessarily
with experience. But different people conclude differently
using different processes of reasoning.
•Scientific method: A fact / statement is not accepted as true,
unless it is tested and open to public inspection. 2
 Research – Definitions
• Science: A systematized body of knowledge that traces the
relationship between cause and effect.
• Science is based on verifiable facts organized in the form
of meaningful principles which aims at explaining different
phenomena.
• The word ‘Research’ is derived from French word "Recher"
which means “to search back”.
Research - Definitions: A careful investigation / inquiry,
especially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.
• Search for knowledge through objective and systematic
method of finding solution to a problem.
• A systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation
of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations
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among the natural phenomena.
Research - Definitions
• Research comprises of defining and redefining problems;
formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions; collecting,
organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to
determine - whether they fit into the formulated hypotheses
(Clifford Woody).
• Research involves formal, systematic and intensive process of
carrying on scientific method of analysis engaging a formal
record of procedures with a view to prepare a report of results
and draw conclusions based on the results.
• Systematic method consisting of statement of the problem,
formulating hypothesis, collection and analyses of data / facts
and reaching conclusions either in the form of solutions towards
the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some
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theoretical formulation.
Research:
• To sum up, research is a systematic and in depth study of
a particular problem and is backed by data collection;
analysis of facts; compilation, presentation and
interpretation of results; and finding out valuable facts in
generalized manner for theoretical formulation and for
further application.
Difficulties in conducting research programme
i) framing relevant objectives and hypotheses
ii) identifying and defining the variables and concepts;
measurement of such variables;
iii) analyses of the facts; and
iv)interpretation of results for deriving policy options.
Every step of research should be carefully made since any
deviation from the right track would result in wrong /
irrelevant conclusions. 5
Research methodology, as a pre-requisite for a researcher, aims:
• i) To acquaint with general characteristics of social research that
leads step-by-step to the conclusion of a social inquiry;
• ii) To guide him to make interpretation and arrive at conclusions.
• Characteristics of a scientific method are:
• i) Verifiability: Conclusion drawn through a scientific method is
subjected to verification at any time.
• ii) Generality: Laws derived through scientific method are
universal in their applications.
• iii) Predictability: Results can be predicted with sufficient
accuracy.
• iv) Objectivity: Results should be free from investigator’s own
views, wishes and prejudice.
• v) Systematic Approach: In every scientific study, there is an
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accepted mode of investigation.
 Qualities of Good Research
i) Systematic
•Research is structured with specified steps taken up in specified
sequence in accordance with well defined set of rules.
•Systematic characteristic does not rule out creative thinking, but it
rejects the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
ii) Logical
•Research is guided by rules of logical reasoning and logical
processes of induction and deduction.
•Induction: Process of reasoning from a part to the whole. It begins
with gathering of specific facts that are assembled in order to arrive
at a general conclusion or generalization.
•Deduction: Process of reasoning from general to specific. This
process is reaching from certain reliable preliminary/undisputable
statements to reach conclusions about specific decision making
units. 7
Qualities of Good Research…
iii) Empirical
•Research relates to real situation and deals with concrete
data that provides a basis for validity to research results.
iv) Replication
•Results should be verified by replicating the study so as to
build a sound basis for decisions.
•Process of verification consists of repeated study of the
same problem under similar conditions for checking the
accuracy of the conclusions drawn.
v) Clarity
•Purpose of research should be clearly defined.
•Research design should be in detail so that another
researcher can repeat it for further advancement.
•Researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in
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research design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
Qualities of Good Research…
vi) Validity and Reliability
• Validity and reliability of the data should be checked.
• Measuring instrument is valid when it measures most
accurately the objects / individuals and their characteristics.
• Reliability means the degree of accuracy of measuring
instruments. Success of measurement depends upon the
degree or extent to which errors can be eliminated.
• Synonymous to the term ‘reliability’ are dependability,
stability, consistency, predictability and accuracy.
• Conclusions are to be drawn from those justified by data
collected.
• Greater confidence in the research is warranted. If the
researcher is experienced, he has a good reputation in
research, and is a person of integrity. 9
Qualities of Good Research…
vii) Ethical Neutrality
• Main objective of the research is to find out the truth.
• Research should not be biased and it should not have any
favourite or biased hypothesis.
vii) Prediction on Probability
• Conclusions from research vary with the degree of certainty.
• In social sciences, the probability of truth is less when
compared to that of natural sciences because of:
(a) the complexity of subject matter, and
(b) inadequacy of control over variables.
So, methodology of social sciences itself is very complex
and it requires more effort and time to achieve high degree
of certainty.
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Objectives of Social Science Research
i) Development of Knowledge: Social science research is an
organized scientific effort to acquire further knowledge on
social phenomenon.
ii) Scientific Study of Social Life: attempts to study human
behaviour and various aspects of social life of man in
order to formulate laws in this regard.
iii) Human Welfare: Results aim to promote human welfare.
iv) Hypothesis Testing: tests causal relationship between
variables.
v) Classification of Facts: classifies the determined
sequences and inter relationship of facts in their social
setting.
vi)Prediction: attempts to predict the behaviour of particular
group of individuals under specified conditions. 11
Assumptions of Social Research: Social problems become complex as
they are influenced by economic, social, cultural and psychological
factors. Therefore, certain assumptions are made before conducting the
social science research.
i) Objectivity: Researcher is neutral or unbiased in carrying out the study
and bringing out conclusions.
(a) Issues of Objectivity: Objectivity is the willingness and ability of the
researcher to examine evidences without prejudice or bias.
It is very difficult to achieve objectivity in social research because,
• It is not possible to wield total control over the variables in social
research.
• Both researcher and subjects are human beings. People often have the
tendency to consider their culture as superior. Researchers also try to
judge other’s culture according to ones own culture and values.
• Most of the variables are qualitative and are not quantifiable.
• Researcher is influenced by personal prejudices, likes and dislikes,
beliefs, faith, etc. This will impair the true value of the social research.
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(b) How to Achieve Objectivity in Social Sciences?
• Use of well structured questionnaire or schedule.
• Standardization of terms and concepts.
• Random sampling.
• Employing statistical measurement or use of empirical methods - by
using rating, ranking and other scaling techniques or Use of
experimental methods.
• Counter checking the data collected.
• Less dependence on investigator and more use of computers for
data processing and analysis.
• Use of a group research technique
• Use of interdisciplinary technique.
ii) Social Norm
• Some kind of natural law exists and any social event depends on it.
iii) Cause and Effect Relationship
• There exists a cause and effect relationship. In social research,
either effects can be found from cause (a priori consideration) or
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cause can be traced out from effects (a posteriori consideration).
iv) Representative Sample
• The sample chosen for the study represents population.
v) Existence of Similar Groups
• Society consists of homogenous groups and the behaviour
of the study groups is as same as that of the other groups.
vi) Regularity
• The phenomena occur in regular pattern. For example,
consumers behave in a certain pattern.
vii) Quantification
• Theories are accepted in mathematical language. All
observations must be quantified for precision.
viii) Integration
• Inter-disciplinary approach is required to understand the
behaviour and actions of persons which are influenced by
social, economic, cultural and political factors.
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Types of Research
i) Descriptive Vs Analytical Research
• Descriptive research includes surveys and fact finding enquiries. It
describes the state of affairs as it is. This is also called ex-post facto
research as the researcher has no control over the variables; he can
only report what has happened or what is happening.
• In analytical research, the researcher uses facts already available,
and analyze these to critically evaluate the material.
ii) Applied Vs Fundamental Research
• Applied research is characterized by practical problem solving
research. It is aimed in solving a specific problem - better
understanding of the market place, determination of why a strategy
or tactic failed, etc.
• Applied research aims at finding concrete solution to an immediate
problem faced by society or industrial / business organization, e.g.
Marketing Research. 15
• Basic (pure) research aims at solving perplexing questions
of a theoretical nature that have little impact on action or
policy decisions. Fundamental or basic or pure research is
concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of
a theory. Here, knowledge is gathered for knowledge sake
(e.g.,) Pure Mathematics research.
• Applied research and basic research are problem - directed
but applied research is much more decision - directed.
iii) Quantitative Vs Qualitative
• Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
variables in terms of quantity or amount. It is applicable to
phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
• Qualitative research deals with qualitative phenomena, i.e.,
attitude or opinion or any other human behaviour. It is
important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to
discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. 16
iv) Conceptual and Empirical Research
• Conceptual research is related to some abstract ideas or
theories. It is used by philosophers and thinkers in order to
develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
• Empirical research relies on experience or observation
alone. It is data - based research providing conclusions
which are capable of being test verified by observation or
experiment.
• Such research is characterized by the researcher’s control
over the variables under study and his deliberate
manipulation of one of them to study its effect.
v) Other Types of Research
(a) One Time Research and Longitudinal Research
• In one-time research, research is confined to a single time
period while, in longitudinal research, the research is
carried on over several time periods. 17
(b) Field Setting Research and Laboratory Research or Simulation
Research
• Depends on the environment in which it is carried out.
(c) Diagnostic Research
• Such research follows case - study approach to go deep into the
basic causal relations.
(d) Exploratory Research
• This is to develop hypothesis rather than their testing
(e) Historical Research
• It utilizes historical sources like old documents to study events
or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and
groups of the past.
(f) Operations Research
• It is a scientific method often used by executive departments for
making decisions on problems relating to operations under their
control using solutions identified with a quantitative basis. 18
 Significance of Research
i) Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and
promotes development of logical process of thinking and
organization.
ii) Increasingly complex nature of business has focused attention on
the use of research in solving operational problems. Operations
research, marketing research and motivational research are crucial
in taking business decisions.
iii) Research provides the basis for all government policies in
economic system. The research as a tool of economic policy of the
government, has three distinct phases of operation.
(a) Investigation of economic structure through continuous
compilation of facts,
(b) Diagnosis of events that are taking place and the analysis of
forces underlying them,
(c) The prediction of future developments.
iv) Research is important for social scientists in studying social
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relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems.
 Research in Agricultural Economics
i) Research in Agricultural Economics provides guidance in farm /
agricultural planning by examining the present economic activities
on the farm or in a particular region.
ii) It suggests the ways and means to maximize the farm / agricultural
income.
iii) It promotes the optimum use of inputs both at micro and macro
levels.
iv) It examines the economic issues related to the field of agriculture
and suggests suitable remedial measures for improving the
profitability of the farmers.
v) It generates knowledge and data base on all agricultural activities.
vi) Knowledge gathered enlightens the requirements that have to be
provided by the other disciplines in agriculture.
vii) It affords a sound basis for prediction of economic events of the
future.
viii) It provides a feed back to the government for policy formulations
regarding agriculture, agro - industries and allied sectors. 20
Broad Areas of Agricultural Economics Research
i) Farm Management and Production Economics
ii) Agricultural Finance and Co-operation
iii) Agricultural Marketing and Price Analysis
iv) Agri – Business Management
v) Natural Resources Economics or Environmental
Economics
vi) Development Planning and Policies for Rural
Areas, Rural Welfare
vii) International Agricultural Trade. 21
 Problems Encountered by Researchers in India
i) Lack of scientific training in the methodology of research.
ii) Inadequate interaction between the university research
departments and private business and industrial
establishments and government institutions.
iii) Most business units do not have the confidence that the
material supplied by them to researchers will not be
misused and as such they are often reluctant in supplying
needed information to researchers.
iv) Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken
quite often for want of adequate information.
v) Very poor library facilities and the management of libraries
is also poor.
vi) There is a difficulty in timely availability of published data
from various government and other agencies.
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vii) Problem of finding good investigators: The investigator
should be unbiased and hard working.
viii) Problem of collecting information: Subject of enquiry is
human beings.
ix) There may also be problems of conceptualization and
problems relating to the process of data collection and
related things.
x) Problem of using questionnaire: Different interpretations of
even a simple question are made by both the investigator and
the respondents.
xi) Dependence on investigator or assistants for data collection,
tabulation, analysis, etc.
xii) Problem of Analysis: Difficulty in getting logical results, the
use of right methodology and the proper interpretation of
results.
xiii) Limitations to generalization: The results cannot be
generalized over a large geographical area in certain cases.23
Assignment No:1
Collect details on the sources of information as indicated
below:
• Name of the journal / Source
• Name of the publisher
• Periodicity of publication (Monthly, Quarterly,
Annual and so on)
• Place of publication
• Details of data provided / Subject (s) dealt.
• Any other information
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 CHAPTER II
APPROACH TO RESEARCH PROBLEM

Research Process
Review of
Literature
Review of
Concepts & Analyse
Define Design Data Inter
Theories Formulate Collect
Research Research (Test pret
Hypotheses Data
Problem (including Hypothe- and
Review of & Objectives (Execu-
Sample ses, if Report
Previous tion)
I Design) any)
Research III
Findings V VII
IV VI
II

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 Research Process

(i) Formulating the research problem,

(ii) Undertaking extensive literature survey,
(iii) Developing the hypotheses and objectives,
(iv) Preparing the research design including sample design,
(v) Collecting the data or Executing the project,
(vi) Analyses of data,
(vii) Hypotheses testing,
(viii) Generalizations and interpretation, and
(ix) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results,
i.e., formal write up of conclusions reached.
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 Formulating the Research Problem

a) What do we want to know?

b) What data are to be collected?

c) Where and how to get the information?

d) Who will collect the information?

e) What relations among economic variables are to be

explored?

f) What techniques are to be used for the purpose?

g) How will the information be analyzed?

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What is a Research Problem?
A researcher finds out the best solution for a given problem.
A research problem has the following components:
i) An individual / organization must experience some
difficulties in theoretical or practical situations and
wants to obtain a solution for the same.
ii) There must be some objectives to be attained.
iii) There must be alternative means or courses of action for
obtaining the objectives. Research helps to identify one
such alternative means as the best course of option.
iv)There must be one or more such environment(s) to which
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the difficulty pertains.
Steps Involved in Formulating the Research Problem
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem thoroughly
(iii) Surveying the available literature
(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions
(v) Rephrasing the research problem into meaningful terms
from an analytical point of view.
Sources of Research Problems
i) Specialization
ii) Observation
iii) Personal experience
iv) Consulting with peer groups and experts
v) Repetition
vi) Investigation
vii) Publication on research findings
viii) Other researcher’s experiences and written materials
ix) Values and theories. 29
Characteristics of the Research Problem
a) A problem should be stated clearly and unambiguously.
b) Problem should express relationship between two or more variables.
c) Problem statement should be testable by empirical methods.
d) Problem statement should avoid moral or ethical judgment.
Types of problem
i) Problem of fact: A fact is a real state of things. Facts are needed for
observation in a scientific inquiry which is undertaken through inductive
or deductive methods.
ii) Problem of value: A person attaches a value to a given thing while the
other does not. It implies that the person is giving his subjective
preference of opinion.
iii) Problem of means: Problem of means is a connecting link between the
problems of facts and values. The facts about fertilizers are well known
and their values have been tested. 30
 Choice or Selection of the Research Problem
Choices depend on: (i) External and (ii) Internal factors.
i) External Factors
a) Practicality: Practical usefulness of problem should guide a
researcher while selecting the problem.
b) Relative Importance of the Problem: Researcher should weigh the
relative importance given to research issues in terms of broadening his
own knowledge and making a practical contribution to the solution of
some outstanding issues of each problem and decide accordingly.
Novelty of the problem also influences the selection of the problem.
c) Objectives of the Sponsor: If the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research wants that a research has to be carried out in a particular
state on a particular crop, then the researcher has no option of his own.
d) Certain problems are recurrent in nature and require repeated study.
For example, cost – price relationship of major agricultural commodities
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demands recurrent investigations.
e) Value that Society Places on Different Types of Research:
In some cases, the selection of the problem is governed
by the values attached to particular fields by the society.
f) Availability of Data: A student is advised to select a
problem on which considerable data either from primary
or secondary sources are available.
g) Techniques to be employed: Importance of models /
tools / techniques to be employed also influences
selection of the problem.
h) Working condition: General working environment and
amenities available to the researcher also influence the
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selection of the problem.
ii) Internal Factors
a) Personal Inclination: In advanced research, the researcher relies
upon his own inclination for selecting the topic.
• For the beginners, the teacher assigns the topic to train them in
accurate observations and subsequent analysis.
• If researcher is employed, then employer assigns him problems to be
investigated based on the needs of research institution / government.
• Interest or aptitude in conducting research, intellectual curiosity,
training, temperament and personal characteristics of the researcher
influence him in selecting the problem.
b) Timeliness of the Problem: Certain problems require immediate
solution. Government may want guidance from agricultural economist
regarding fixation of minimum prices for agricultural produces.
• Problem should be of current importance rather than that of old issues.
c) Resources Available: Problems selected should be conditioned
by the availability of time, money, personnel and technical skill of
worker.
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d) Furtherance of Vocational Ambition: A research student should
iii) Other points to be considered in selecting research problem are:
• Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be
difficult to throw any new light in such a case.
• Controversial subject should not be chosen by a beginner.
• Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
• Subject may be familiar and feasible so that the related research
material are easily available. So, the researcher should contact an
expert who has done some research in the concerned subject.
• Necessary co-operation obtained from those who participate in
research (subjects) should also be considered in selecting problem.
• Selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study,
especially, if the study is relatively a new one in which a set of well
developed techniques are not available.
• Technical terms and words of phrases, with special meanings used in
the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.
• Scope of investigation or limits within which the problem is to be
34
studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining the research problem.
 Approaches to Research
Quantitative Approach
i) Inferential approach is a survey research where a sample of population
is studied (questioned / observed) to determine its characteristics or
relationships, and inferred that the population also has the same
characteristics or relationships.
ii) Experimental research has a greater control over the research
environment and here, some variables are manipulated to observe their
effect on other variables.
iii) Simulation approach involves construction of an artificial environment
within which relevant information and data can be generated.
• Permits an observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system or its sub-
system under controlled conditions.
• Given the values of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous
variables, a simulation is run to represent the behaviour of the process
over time.
• Useful in building models for understanding future conditions. 35
 Quantitative and Qualitative Paradigm Assumptions
Assumptions Quantitative Qualitative
1. Nature of reality · Reality is objective and · Reality is subjective and
(Ontological singular, apart from the multiple as seen by participants
Assumption) researcher. in a study.
2. Relationship of
the researcher to
that researched. · Researcher is independent · Researcher interacts with that
(Epistemological from that being researched. being researched.
Assumption)
3. Role of values
(Axiological · Value - free and unbiased. · Value - laden and biased.
Assumption)
4.Language of • Formal. • Informal.
research • Based on set • Evolving definitions.
(Rhetorical definitions. • Personal voice.
Assumption) • Impersonal voice. • Use of Accepted qualitative
• Use of accepted words.
quantitative words.
· Deductive Process. · Inductive process.
5. Process of · Cause and effect · Mutual simultaneous shaping
research relationship. of factors.
(Methodological · Static design - categories · Emerging design - categories
Assumption) isolated before study. identified during research
· Context – free. process.
· Generalizations lead to · Context bound.
prediction, explanation and · Patterns and theories are
understanding. developed for understanding.36
· Accurate and reliable · Accurate and reliable through
through validity and reliability. verification.
 Criteria for Selecting the Approach
Criteria Quantitative Approach
1.Researcher’s A researcher is comfortable
world view with five assumptions of
quantitative approach.
2. Training and Technical writing skills;
experience of computer statistical skills,
the researcher library skills.
3.Researcher’s Comfortable with rules and
guidelines for conducting
psychological research; low tolerance for
attributes ambiguity; time for a short
duration study.
4. Nature of Previously studied by other
problem researchers so that body of
literature exists; known
variables; existing theories.
5. Audience for Individuals accustomed to /
the study supportive of quantitative
studies.
Qualitative Approach
A researcher is comfortable
with five assumptions of
qualitative approach.
Literary writing skill; computer
- text analysis skills, library
skills.
Comfortable with lack of
specific rules and procedures
for conducting research; high
tolerance for ambiguity; time
for lengthy study.
Exploratory research; variables
unknown; context important;
may lack theory base for the
study.
Individuals accustomed to /
supportive of qualitative
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studies.
 Criteria Quantitative Approach Qualitative Approach
6. Sample size Large Small
7. Types of Statistical, Subjective,
analysis Summarization Interpretative
8. Hardware Questionnaires, Tape recorders,
Computers, Print-outs Projection devices,
Video, Pictures,
Discussion guides
9. Training of Statistics, Decision Psychology, Sociology,
the models, Decision Social Psychology,
researcher support systems, Consumer behaviour,
Computer programming, Marketing, Marketing
Marketing, Marketing research
research
10. Types of Descriptive or causal Exploratory
38
research
 Methods of Data Collection
Quantitative Approach Qualitative Approach
1. Experiments 1.
Ethnographies
2. Survey methods 2.
Grounded theory
i) Cross - sectional 3.
Case studies
ii) Longitudinal studies 4.
Phenomenological
studies
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Quantitative Methods
Experiments include 3 experiments with random assignment
of subjects to treatment conditions and quasi experiments
that use non-randomized designs. Also include experiments
with single - subject designs.
Surveys include cross sectional and longitudinal studies
using questionnaires / structured interviews for data
collection in order to generalize about population from a
sample.
Ethnographies
• Researcher studies an intact cultural group in a natural
setting during a prolonged period of time by collecting,
primarily, observational data.
• Process is flexible and typically evolves - contextually in
response to the realities encountered in the field setting.
• Researcher chooses between conceptual alternatives and
40
value - laden judgments to challenge research, policy and
Ethnographies . . .
• Critical ethnographers attempt to aid emancipatory goals,
negate repressive influences, raise consciousness, and invoke
action that potentially leads to social change.
• Respondents reflect their culture through their gestures,
displays, symbols, songs, sayings, and everything else has
some implicit, tacit meaning for others in that culture.
• Ethnographic method involves observation and note taking.
• One of the assumptions of ethnography is naturalism, or
leaving natural phenomenon alone.

Standard rules for taking field notes in Ethnography

• Take notes as soon as possible - do not talk to anyone before
note taking.
• Record the order or sequence of events, and how long each
sequence lasts.
• Do not worry that anything is too insignificant; record even the
41
smallest things.
• Draw maps or diagrams of location, including your
movements and any reaction by others.
• Write quickly and don't worry about spelling; devise your
own system of punctuation.
• Include your own thoughts and feelings in a separate
section; your later thoughts in another section.

Grounded Theory
• Researcher derives a theory with multiple stages of data
collection and refinement and interrelationship of
categories of information.
• Two primary characteristics of this design are the constant
comparison of data with emerging categories, and
theoretical sampling of different groups to maximize the
similarities and differences of information. 42
Case Studies
• Researcher collects information about a single - entity or
phenomenon (‘the case’), bounded by time and activity (event,
programme, process, institution or social group) using different
data collection procedures for a sustained period of time.
• Researcher observes individual - his situation and behaviour as
a total configuration of factors that influence him through time.
• Researcher tries to find out how cumulative experiences at
different stages of life have influenced the individual life.
Phenomenological Studies
• Human experiences are examined through the detailed
descriptions of the people being studied.
• Understanding the "lived experiences" marks phenomenology
as a philosophy (Gandhian philosophy).
• Involves studying a small number of subjects through extensive
and prolonged engagement to develop patterns 43 and
relationships of meaning.
Content Analysis
• Content: a technique for gathering and analyzing content of text.
• It can be words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, pictures,
symbols, or ideas.
• It can be done quantitatively as well as qualitatively, and computer
programmes can be used to assist the researcher.
• Initial step involves sorting the content into themes, which
depends on the content.
• There are strict limitations on the inferences a researcher can make
with content analysis. Eg., inferences about motivation or intention
can not normally be made, nor can the researcher infer what the
effect of seeing such content would be on a viewer.
• Content analysis is only analysis of what is in the text.
• A researcher cannot use it to prove that newspapers intended, for
example, to mislead the public, or that a certain style of journalism
has a particular effect on public attitudes.
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Assignment 2: Present the Objectives of any two theses research
 RESEARCH DESIGN, REVIEW OF LITERATURE,
FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESES AND OBJECTIVES
Literature Survey
• Once research problem is formulated, a brief summary
(synopsis) should be written.
• Synopsis preparation requires an extensive literature
survey
• For this, abstracting and indexing journals, and published
or unpublished bibliographies, academic journals,
conference proceedings, government reports, books, etc.,
must be reviewed.
• In this process, one source will lead to another.
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• A good library will help to the researcher at this stage.
Accomplishment of Literature Review
i) It shares the results of other studies that are
closely related to the study being reported.
ii) It relates a study to the larger ongoing dialogue
in the literature about a topic, filling in gaps and
extending prior studies.
iii) It provides a framework for establishing the
importance of the study, as well as benchmark
for comparing the results of a study with other
findings. 46
Suggestions in using literature in a quantitative or
qualitative study
i) In qualitative study, use literature sparingly in the
beginning of the plan so as to convey an inductive design
unless a substantial literature is required at the outset.
ii) Consider appropriate place for literature (in introduction
or separate section or at the end) in a qualitative study.
iii) Use the literature in a quantitative study deductively as a
basis for advancing research questions or hypotheses.
iv) Use literature to introduce the study, to describe related
literature in a separate section, and to compare with
findings in a quantitative study.
v) If a separate review of literature is used, consider
whether it will be described as integrative summaries,
theoretical reviews, or methodological reviews.
vi) A typical practice in dissertation writing is to present an
integrated review. 47
 Design Techniques in Literature Use
i) Material to be Included in a Review
• Knowing what to abstract and how to abstract it
quickly is very important when hundreds of studies
are reviewed
• A good summary of a journal article includes the
following points:
(a) Mention the problem being addressed,
(b) State the focus of the study,
(c) State information about sample, population, or
subjects,
(d) Review key results that relate to the study, and
(e) Depending on whether or not the review is a
methodological review, point out technical and
48
methodological flaws in the study.
ii) Priority for Reviewing the Literature
a) Begin with reputed journal articles, national journals, i.e.,
those that report research studies. Journals are placed first
because they are very easy to locate and summarize.
b) Review the books related on the topic. Begin with research
monographs that are summaries of the scholarly literature.
c) Follow this search by reading recent conference papers on a
topic as they report the latest research developments.
d) Dissertation Abstract International (University Microfilms)
can be reviewed. They vary considerably in quality and are
difficult reading materials to locate.
e) Make contact with authors of studies. Seek them out at
conferences. Write or phone or send e-mail to them to ask
whether they know of studies related to the proposed study
and whether they have an instrument that can be used or
modified to measure variables of the present study. 49
iii) A Model for Delimiting the Literature Review
• It is difficult to determine how much literature is to
be reviewed.
• To overcome this problem, consider a literature
review to be composed of five components:
(a) an introduction,
(b) Topic 1 (about the independent variables),
(c) Topic 2 (about the dependent variables),
(d) Topic 3 (studies that address the relationships
between the independent and dependent
variables), and
(e) a summary that captures the most important
studies and major themes in the review. 50
iv) Computer Databases
• Information retrieval has become the next frontier of scientific
development for social scientists. Internet offers world wide database
that can be easily scanned by researchers.
v) Style Manuals and Bibliographic Citation
• Adopt a style manual - acceptable to the audience - in initial planning
process. Common style problems arise in the following instances:
a) When writing in-text references, appropriate form for types of
references and format for multiple citations should be followed.
b) Note whether the end-of-text references have to be alphabetized or
numbered. Also cross-check that each in-text reference is included in
the end-of-text list.
c) Headings are ordered in terms of levels. First, note how many levels of
headings are used. Then, refer to the manual for appropriate format for
the number of levels.
d) Foot notes are used less frequently in scholarly papers today. If foot-
notes are used, consult style manual for their proper placement. Note
whether they go at the bottom of the page or at the end of the paper.
e) Tables and figures have a specific form in each style manual. Note
such aspects as bold lines, titles, and spacing in the examples 51
as
given in the style manual.
(i) Purpose Statement
• Introduction focuses on problem leading to the study, but
purpose statement establishes the direction for research.
• Purpose Statement captures essence of a study in a single
sentence or paragraph. It provides “a specific and accurate
synopsis of overall purpose of study”.
Qualitative Purpose Statement: This implies the assumptions
of qualitative paradigm, like language of qualitative
research and methodology of an emerging design based
on experiences of individuals in a natural setting.
Basic design features of writing this statement are as
follows:
i) Use such words as purpose, intent, and objective as central
controlling idea in a study to describe this statement,
ii) Use words that convey an emerging design because of52the
• Quantitative Purpose Statement: For writing a quantitative
statement, a firm understanding of variables is needed. A
variable is a discrete phenomenon that can be measured or
observed in two or more categories. As the phenomenon
varies (in two or more categories), it is called “variables”.
• Variables may be distinguished by two characteristics:
their temporal order and measurement. In social science
research, there are three types of variables:
• Independent variables that cause, influence and affect
outcomes.
• Dependent variables are the outcomes or results of the
influence of the independent variables.
• Intervening (also called extraneous or mediating) variables:
They intervene between independent and dependent
variables; they are statistically controlled in analyses
through random sampling. (E.g.) Demographic variables
53
like gender, age, income, and class size.
Components of a good quantitative purpose statement
i) Use a statement such as purpose, intent, or objective to
begin the passage,
ii) Identify the theory, model, or conceptual framework to be
tested in the study. Mention specific type of method of
inquiry (survey and experiment) being used in the study,
iii) State whether the independent and dependent variables
will be related or whether two or more groups (as an
independent variable) will be compared in terms of the
dependent variable(s). As a general principal, order the
variables in the relationships or comparison sentence
from the independent to dependent, and
iv) Refer to the unit of analysis in the study (subjects,
population and sample being studied). 54
 Hypothesis - Meaning
• Hypothesis means a mere assumption or some
supposition to be proved or disproved.
• A hypothesis as a proposition not known to be definitely
true or false, examined for the sake of determining the
consequences which would follow from its truth.
• A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for which the
evidence necessary for testing is at least potentially
available. (E.g.) Inflation causes a decline in the value of
money of a country.
• A hypothesis is a tentative statement derived from theory
and acts a guide in the conduct of an inquiry. If the
hypothesis is established by testing, it becomes one of
the generalizations of social science. If it does not meet
the test, it is re-examined or rejected. 55
Sources of Hypothesis
• Ideal source of fruitful and relevant hypothesis is a fusion
of two elements, past experience and disciplined
imagination of a scientist.
• Broadly speaking, experience, imagination, observation,
analogy, and theory are the sources of a hypothesis.
i) Experience: A reasonable guess is made to solve a
problem on the basis of the experience of the researcher.
ii) Imagination provides guidance for solving a problem.
iii) Observation of facts previously gathered and current
facts related to it help in formulating a hypothesis.
iv) Analogy is used to compare two subjects, not necessarily
alike, except in the characteristics compared. Whenever a
phenomenon is perceived, the first impulse of the mind is
to connect it with the most nearly similar phenomenon.
• When objects of different classes show same or similar
56
relationship, analogy is used to compare their relationship.
v) Theory is capable of explaining all known facts relating to
the problem under study and suggests further areas of
knowledge to be inquired into.
Other sources of hypothesis are as detailed below:
a) Environment: Sociological, cultural, political and
economic activities followed in a country can be analyzed
to formulate a hypothesis.
b) Popular beliefs and practices followed by people.
c) Logical deduction: If certain conditions prevail, certain
results will be followed.
What difference would it make between gathering data with
a hypothesis and gathering them without it?
• Answer: Hypothesis guides investigator in establishing
direction of an inquiry in which to proceed and assisting
him in collection of relevant data.
• Hypotheses stand in the midpoint of research, when one
looks back to formulation of problem and also looks
57
forward to collection of data.
Research Functions Performed by a Hypothesis
i) It directs the search for data in an orderly way.
ii) It provides basis for separating relevant from
irrelevant observations. It prevents blind search and
indiscriminate gathering of data which may later
prove irrelevant to the problem under study.
iii) It creates an answer where an answer did not exist.
iv) It helps in the development of research techniques.
v) It establishes the relationships between
assumptions and observations.
vi) It is used to predict results.
vii) It leads researchers to make deductions which, if
hypothesis is correct, constitute a new knowledge.
viii) It serves as an important link between theory and
58
investigation.
Attributes of a Good Hypothesis
i) Testability: Hypothesis should be testable. It is possible
to deduce logically certain conclusions from hypothesis,
which can be tested by observation.
ii) Clarity: Hypothesis should not be ambiguous.
Terminology used should be commonly accepted and
understood.
iii) Relevance: It should be relevant in relation to the
problem under study.
iv) Consistent: A hypothesis must be self consistent
without internal contradictions.
v) Simplicity: A hypothesis should be simple without
involving many complexities and assumptions. It has
systematic simplicity or logical compactness.
vi) Adjustment: A hypothesis should fit the facts and also to
the technique of data collection. 59
vii) Fruitful for new discoveries: Hypothesis should
suggest new field of knowledge to be studied.
viii) Power of prediction: A hypothesis should be
formulated to precisely predict the future trends.
ix) A hypothesis does not conflict with any laws of
nature or of mind, which we hold them to be true.
x) Hypothesis should state relationship between
variables, if it happens to be a relational hypothesis.
xi) Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be
specific. Narrower hypothesis are generally more
testable and researcher should develop such
60
hypothesis.
 Types of Hypothesis
i) Working Hypothesis
• Working or trial hypothesis is provisionally adopted to explain certain
facts and to guide a research worker in investigating others.
• Working hypothesis explains relationship between the facts gathered.
• If it fits the fact, it is accepted, otherwise it is revised or a new
hypothesis is developed.
ii) Null Hypothesis
• A hypothesis which is tested for possible rejection is null hypothesis.
E.g., Development of cottage and small scale industries in
Coimbatore District has no bearing on socio-economic upliftment of
people.
iii) Alternative Hypothesis
• It is desirable to formulate several hypotheses in the beginning and
then to select the one that explains the phenomenon most efficiently
or fits the case best. If a hypothesis is introduced at a later stage of
the inquiry, especially in the event of rejection of working hypothesis,
61
it is known as the alternative hypothesis. An alternative hypothesis is,
Points to be considered in the formulation of hypothesis
Pre conceived notions: If researcher starts investigation with
certain pre-conceived notions, the scientific spirit is at once
destroyed and the findings will be misleading.
• Subjective influence should not come into the mind of
researcher
Value judgment: Researcher should avoid value judgment in the
statement of his hypothesis.
• A value judgment refers only to personal or subjective standard,
such as good or bad, happy or unhappy, etc.
Use of future tense: As hypothesis is a statement deduced from
theory, future tense should not be used in stating it. E.g., Null
hypothesis: There will be no correlation between intelligence of
children and their progress in school.
• Instead of using "will be", he should write "is", because a
hypothesis is a tentative explanation that already exists and for
62
which the evidence for testing is potentially available.
Difficulties in Formulation of Hypothesis
i) Lack of clear theoretical back ground:
Researchers do not have a clear cut and definite
theoretical background. They are unable to arrive
at correct conclusions.
ii) Lack of logical back ground: There is a lack of
logical use of theoretical background.
iii) Lack of knowledge of scientific methods: It is
always not possible to have complete information
of and acquaintance with scientific methods of
formulating hypothesis.
These difficulties, however, can be overcome by:
i) Acquiring complete and perfect knowledge on the
principles
63
ii) Stating hypothesis briefly and timely.
Objectives
• In quantitative studies, objectives represent specific
restatements of the purpose of the study.
• Objective is a statement indicating the relationship between two
or more variables in declarative form.
• They are presented as either a comparison between two or more
groups in terms of a dependent variable or as a relationship of
two or more independent and dependent variables.
• In deductive methodological process of quantitative research,
objectives are testable propositions deduced from theory.
• In objectives, independent and dependent variables may be kept
and measured separately.
Assignment No. 3
(i) Formulate hypotheses for a thesis research.
(ii) Make purpose statement for a thesis research.
(iii) Make an abstract of a thesis in one page covering introduction,
64
methodology, results and policy implications.
 RESEARCH DESIGN
• Research design: Sequence of those steps taken ahead of
time to ensure that relevant data are collected in a way that
permits objective analysis of different hypotheses and
objectives formulated
• A research design is the plan, structure and strategy of
investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research
questions and to control “variance”
• Research design is the blue print of the detailed procedures
of testing the hypotheses and analyzing the collected data.
• Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what
means concerning a research study constitute a research
design.
• It includes an outline of what the researcher will do from the
stage of writing hypothesis and its operational implications
65
to the final analysis of data.
The design decisions happen to be in respect of:
i) What is the study about?
ii) Why is the study being made?
iii) Where will the study be carried out?
iv) What type of data is required?
v) Where can the required data be found?
vi) What is the study period?
vii) What will be the sample design?
viii) What techniques of data collection will be
used?
ix) How the data will be analyzed?
x) In what style will the report be prepared?
66
The research design can be split into the following parts:
i) Sampling design: method of selecting items to be observed
for the given study;
ii) Observational design: conditions under which the
observations are to be made;
iii) Statistical design deals with how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be
analyzed; and
iv) Operational design deals with the techniques by which the
procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and
observational designs can be carried out.
In brief, research design must, at least contain
(a) a clear statement of the research problem
(b) procedure and techniques to be used for gathering
information
(c) the population to be studied and
(d) methods to be used in processing and analyzing data. 67
Purpose of Research Design
To provide maximum amount of information relevant to the
problem at a minimum cost.
It is essential in the following ways:
i) It helps to organize the researcher’s ideas in a form where
by it will be possible to look for flaws and inadequacies.
ii) It provides an inventory of what must be done and which
materials have to be collected as a preliminary step.
iii) It is a document that can be given to others for comment.
iv) It answers to the research questions as objectively, validly
and economically as possible.
• It is useful in collecting maximum information with
minimum effort, time and money.
v) It acts as a control mechanism - it enables the researcher
to eliminate the unwanted flaws and inadequacies.
• It helps in controlling variance. 68
Important Concepts Relating to Research Design
i) Variable: A concept which can take on different quantitative
values, e.g., weight, height, income, etc.
a) Dependent variable depends upon or is a consequence of
other variable.
b) Independent variable is causing or influencing or affecting
the outcome of another variable.
c) Extraneous: Independent variables that are not related to
the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent
variable are extraneous variable.
• Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result
of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an
‘experimental error’. 69
Variables can also be continuous and discrete in nature.
a) Continuous variable: Phenomena which can take an
quantitatively different values even in decimal points.
b) Discrete variable: It can be expressed only in integer values.
ii) Control is used when the study is designed for minimising the
effect of extraneous independent variables.
iii) Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is not
free from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the
relationship between the dependent and independent variables
is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable.
iv) Research Hypotheses: When a prediction or a hypothesized
relationship is tested by scientific methods, it is research
hypothesis.
v) Treatments: Different conditions under which experimental and
control groups are put.
vi) Experiment: Process of examining the truth of a statistical
hypothesis relating to some research problem.
vii) Experimental unit(s): Pre-determined plots or the blocks, where
70
different treatments are used.
Principles of Research Design
i) Principle of Randomisation
• Randomisation is a procedure of allocating experimental units to
specified group with each unit having an equal chance of being
selected as a member of that group.
• This provides protection against the effect of extraneous factors.
ii) Principle of Replication
• It refers to the deliberate repetition of an experiment using a nearly
identical procedure with a different set of subjects in a different setting
and at a different time.
• Statistical accuracy of the experiment is increased through replication
iii) Principle of Local Control
• It refers to amount of balancing, blocking and grouping of the subjects
or the experimental units employed in the experimental design.
• Under this, the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is
made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary in such a
way that the variability it causes can be measured and eliminated from
71
the experimental error.
Major Steps in Preparing a Research Design
i) Review of literature
• To review all relevant materials connected with the problem.
• To show how the selected problem is related or different
from previous research studies.
• To give better insight into the problem and help in correct
planning.
ii) Sources of Information to be Tapped
• There are two sources, viz., a) Documentary and b) Field
a) Documentary: Published / unpublished documents reports,
statistics, manuscripts, etc. (secondary sources).
b) Field: Direct source and personal sources who have
knowledge on the problem (participant observation,
personal interview, correspondence, questionnaires, etc)
(primary sources). 72
iii) Development of Bibliography
• Building up of reference cards on the problem chosen:
Author name, Initial, (year), “Topic”, publishers name /
Journal name, volume number and page number.
iv) Nature of Study
• Whether it is a statistical study / case study / comparative
study / impact study / experimental study / combination of
all these have to be decided before hand.
v) Objectives of the Study
• It should be compiled in clear cut terms. It is based on the
hypothesis formulated.
vi) Socio-Cultural Context of Study
• Social and cultural settings of study must be reviewed,
which form a backdrop for better understanding of results.
73
vii) Geographical Areas to be Covered
• Physical boundaries of area in which study is to be carried
out, have to be documented.
viii) Time dimension of the Study
• Phasing of activities of the study that will coincide with what
period has to be done.
• Will the subjects (respondents) be relatively free during the
interview to be conducted?
• Whether the time chosen is a normal period?
ix) Assumptions to be made and Limitations
• The assumptions made and the limitations of the study can
be given in clear cut terms.
x) Basis for Selecting the Data
a) sample must represent the universe,
b) sample must be in correct size to draw logical conclusions
c)The sample must be efficient. 74
xi) Techniques of Study involve determination of suitable
techniques for collecting the necessary data.
• In observation method, close attention of researcher is required
• If sample is scattered and literate, questionnaire method is
followed.
xii) Control of Error
a) Suppression of facts causing errors,
b) Cross checking of facts, and
c) Randomizing the observations to minimize error.
xiii) Establish the Reliability and Validity of Test Instruments
• Good research design minimizes bias and maximizes the
reliability of the data.
The ways and means of improving the reliability of the study are:
a) Fewer transformation and translation would lessen the
possibility of distortion, and
b) Do test the facts and measure what is claimed from them. 75
Validity of a Research Design
• Validity means that the researcher’s conclusion is true – that is, it
corresponds to the actual state of the world. It is of four types:
a) Internal Validity indicates the extent to which a study provides
evidence of a cause – effect relationship between the independent
and dependent variables.
b) Construct Validity refers to the extent to which the results support
the theory behind the research.
c) External Validity indicates how well the findings of an experiment
generalize to other situations or populations.
d) Statistical Validity indicates the extent to which data are shown to
be the result of cause – effect relationships rather than accident.
xiv) Scheming the Chapters
a) Chapter outline,
b) Name of each chapter and their arrangements and
c) Main results and discussion should be separate chapter.
d) In general, the optimum number is 5 to 6 chapters. 76
Advantages of Research design
i) Saves lot of researcher’s time
ii) Directs him to prepare himself for executing the
various activities systematically.
iii) Enables resources planning and procurement in
right time. It also ensures a project time schedule.
iv) Better documentation of the activities, while the
project is in progress.
v) Provides satisfaction and sense of success from
beginning to completion of every stage of project.
77
Types of Research Designs
i) Research design in exploratory research studies
• Researcher uses his own imagination and judgment in
obtaining information on the type of things he is looking for
in the unexplored field of study.
• Development of hypothesis for conducting the inquiry is not
necessary.
• Major emphasis is on the discovery of ideas and insights.
ii) Research design in descriptive and diagnostic research
studies
• In descriptive studies, the researcher is interested in
describing on situation of phenomenon under study.
• Data collected are mostly of qualitative nature, e.g., attitude,
behaviour, public opinion, political interest, etc.
• Diagnostic research studies determine frequency with
which something occurs or its association with something 78
iii) Experiment (or) Hypothesis Test Studies
• In hypothesis testing research studies, researcher tests
hypotheses of causal relationships between variables.
• Professor Fisher found that by dividing agricultural fields or
plots into different blocks and by conducting experiments in
each of these blocks, whatever information is collected and
inferences drawn from them, happens to be more reliable.
• Experimental design in social sciences is different from that
of natural sciences wherein the human beings can not be
tested under laboratory conditions.
• Social scientists have designed tests that lead to
reasonable generalizations.
• Experimental group is assumed to be causal (or
independent) variable while a control group is not; the two
groups are then compared in terms of assumed effect (or
79
dependent variable).
 Informal Experimental Designs

i) Before – and – After Without Control Design

80
 ii) After – Only With Control Design

iii) Before – and – After With Control Design

Assignment No. 4
81
Prepare a research design of your thesis research
CHAPTER V
SAMPLING THEORY AND SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION
• Sampling: Selection of some part of an aggregate or
totality on the basis of which a judgment or inference
about the aggregate or totality is made.
• Researcher selects only a few items from universe for his
study purposes. This is done on the assumption that
sample data will enable him to estimate the population
parameters.
• Items so selected constitute what is technically called a
sample, their selection process or technique is called
sample design and the survey conducted on the basis of
sample is described as a sample survey.
• Sample should be truly representative of population
characteristics without any bias so that it may result in
82
valid and reliable conclusions.
 Need for Sampling
Sampling is used for a variety of reasons such as:
i) Sampling can save time and money: A sample study is
usually less expensive than a census study and produces
results at a relatively faster speed.
ii) Sampling enables more accurate measurements as the
sample study is generally conducted by trained and
experienced investigators.
iii) Sampling is inevitable when population contains infinitely
large number of members or units.
iv) Sampling remains the only choice when a test involves
the destruction of the item under study.
v) Sampling enables to estimate sampling errors and helps
in getting information on some characteristics of
population. 83
Definitions
i) Universe / Population: Universe refers to total of items or units
in any field of inquiry, whereas ‘population’ refers to total of
items about which information is desired.
• Units possessing the attributes or characteristics that are the
object of study are called elementary units.
• All units in any field of inquiry constitute ‘universe’, while all
elementary units (on the basis of one characteristic or more)
constitute ‘population’.
• Population is totality of all possible observations of same kind.
• Population or universe can be finite or infinite. Population is
finite, if it consists of fixed number of elements or items or units
so that it is possible to enumerate in its totality, e.g., number of
workers in a factory, population of a city, etc.
ii) Population of Interest: Basic issue is to specify characteristics
of those individuals or things (e.g., companies, stores, etc) from
84
which information is needed to meet the objectives of research.
iii) Unit: Any population / universe should contain some
specifications in terms of current limits, extent and time.
• Eg: Medium farm households in Coimbatore district of Tamil
Nadu in 2017.
• Unit designation: Medium Farm Household.
• Time designation: 2017.
• Place: Coimbatore District of Tamil Nadu State.
iv) Sample: It is subset of the population of interest.
• Information is obtained from or about a subset of population
to estimate about various characteristics of total population.
• Subset of population from or about which information is
obtained should be a representative cross-section of the
total population.
v) Sampling is taking any portion of a population or universe
as a representative of that population or universe. 85
Populations and Samples
• Populations and samples are studied through descriptive
measures like mean, variance and standard deviation.
• Statisticians use the term ‘parameters’ for basic
descriptive measures of population and the term
‘statistics’ for characteristic measures of sample. They
use Greek letters for population parameters and Latin
letters for sample statistics.
Population Parameters Sample Statistics
i) Population mean: µ i) Sample mean: X 2
ii) Population variance: x 2
ii) Sample variance:sx
iii) Population standard iii) Sample standard
deviation:  x deviation: s x
vi) Random: Every element in the total population has an
equal probability of being chosen for the sample and each
of these elements is independent of the other.
vii) Attribute: Specific or characteristic trait of an element of
population is called an attribute. E.g., Medium farmers 86 in
Coimbatore District own > 5 acres of dry land.
viii) Variable: The factor that varies across time and units. It is one
which can take different quantitative values.
ix) Bias: Tendency to have an error in the direction is a bias.
x) Confidence level and significance level: Confidence level or
reliability is the expected percentage of times that the actual
value will fall within the stated precision limits.
• If a confidence level is 95 %, there are 95 chances in 100 (or
0.95 in 1) that the sample results represent the true condition of
the population within a specified precision range against 5
chances in 100 (0.05 in 1) that it does not.
• Precision: range within which the answer may vary and still be
acceptable; confidence level indicates that likelihood that the
answer will fall within that range, and significance level
indicates the likelihood that answer will fall outside the range.
• If the confidence level is 95 %, then the significance level will
be (100-95) 5 %. If the confidence level is 99 %, then 87the
significance level is 1 %, i.e., 100-99.
Precision
• Area of normal curve within precision limits for the
specified confidence level constitutes the acceptance
region and the area of the curve outside these limits in
either direction constitutes the rejection regions.
xi) Precision: It is the range within which the population
mean (or other parameter) will lie in accordance with the
reliability specified in the confidence level as a
percentage of the estimate ± or as a numerical quantity.
E.g., if the estimate is Rs. 4000 and the designated precision
is ± 4%. Then the true value should lie in between
Rs. 3840 and Rs. 4160.
• But if we desire that the estimate should not deviate from
the actual value by more than Rs.200 in either direction, in
that case the range would be from Rs.3800 to Rs.4200. 88
xii) Probability
• Probability of a given event is an expression of likelihood
of occurrence of an event.
• Probability is a number ranges from 0 to 1. Zero for event
which cannot occur and 1 for an event certain to occur.
• In sampling theory, the term probability is used as
equivalent to the relative frequency.
• Development of hypothesis is the domain of theory and
inference drawn from the study of a sample is expressed
in terms of probability.
Probability Sample: In this, each individual item has an
equal chance or probability of being included as a part of
the sample.
Non-probability Sample: In this, there is no way of
estimation of probability of individuals being included89
in
the sample.
Frequency
• It is the number of times a particular value occurs.
• Frequency distribution is a presentation of data in which
the frequencies are distributed according to class intervals
or attributes.
• Frequency distribution is also graphically represented as
either of the following: graphs, histograms, frequency
polygon, frequency curve and cumulative frequency curve.
• Frequency distributions are classified under two heads :
i) Observed frequency distribution and
ii) Theoretical or expected frequency distribution
• Observed frequency distributions are based in
observation. e.g. Data on marks of a class are classified in
90
the form of frequency distribution.
Theoretical distributions
• Observed frequency distribution is based on actual observation
• However, it is possible to deduce mathematically what the frequency
distributions of certain population should be.
• Such distributions as expected on the basis of previous experience
or theoretical considerations are known as ‘theoretical distributions’
or ‘probability distributions’.
• For example, if a coin is tossed we expect that as ‘n’ increases we
shall get close to 50 % heads and 50 % tails.
• Based on this expectation, we test whether a given coin is unbiased
or not.
• If a coin is tossed 100 times, we may get 40 heads and 60 tails. This
is our observation and the expectation is 50 % heads and 50 % tails.
• The fact that the probabilities for both heads and tails are 1/2 does
not mean that we must necessarily get 50 % heads and 50 % tails - it
only means that if experiment is carried out a large number of times
we will, on an average, get close to 50 % heads & 50 % tails. 91
• According to Robert Parket, probability distribution consists of a
mutually exclusive and exhaustive compilation of all random events
that can occur for a particular process and probability of each
event’s occurring.
• Any statement of a function associating each of a set of mutually
exclusive and exhaustive events with its probability is a probability
distribution”
• It is a mathematical model that represents the distribution of the
universe, obtained either from a theoretical population or from
actual world; the distribution shows the results of computed
statistics for each sample, if we take many probability samples.
• A table listing all possible values that a random variable can take on
together with the associated probabilities is called a probability
distribution.
• Probability distribution of X, where X is the number of spots
showing when a six sided symmetric die is rolled, is given below.
Probability Distribution for a Single Die
X 1 2 3 4 5 6
P(X) 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6
92
• Sum of all probabilities in a probability distribution is 1, since
one of the values produced by a random experiment must
occur if the experiment is performed.
• A random variable is a numerical quantity whose value is
determined by the outcome of a random (chance) experiment.
• When a random experiment is performed, the totality of
outcomes of the experiment forms a set which is called sample
space (s) of the experiment.
• Let the random experiment be tossing of a coin 2 times.
• Here S = {(T, T) (T,H) (H,T) (H,H)}.
• If we replace T by 0 and H by 1, then the number of heads
obtained in both the trails shall be:
• T, T – 0; T, H – 1; H, T – 1; and H, H - 2
• The sample space S can be written as {0, 1, 2} and here
• P (X=0) = P (T, T) = 1/4
• P (X=1) = P {(T, H) (H,T)} = 1/2
• P (X=2) = P (H, H) = 1/4
93
• Here  P (X) = 1/4 + 1/2 + 1/4 = 1
• A function P(X) is called the probability function of the
random variable X.
• Probability distribution is the outcome of the different
probabilities taken by this function of random variable X.
• A random variable can be either discrete or continuous.
• A random variable is said to be discrete, if the set of values
defined by it over the sample space is finite.
• On the other hand, a random variable is 'continuous', if it
can assume any (real) value in an interval.
• If the random variable X is a discrete one, the probability
function P(X) is called ‘Probability Mass Function’ and its
distribution as ‘Discrete Probability Distribution’
• If the random variable X is of continuous type, the
probability function P(X) is called Probability Density
Function (PDF) and its distribution is called ‘Continuous 94
Probability Distribution’.
Sampling Error
• Sample surveys imply the study of small portion of the
population and as such there would be a certain amount
of inaccuracy in the information collected.
• This inaccuracy is called sampling error or error variance.

• Sampling errors are due to sampling and they happen to

be random variations (in random sampling) in sample
estimates around true population parameters or values.
• Difference between the sample estimate and the
population value of any character is called sampling error.
• Sampling errors occur randomly and are equally likely to
be on either direction (positive or negative).
• Magnitude of the sampling error depends upon the nature
of the universe; the more homogenous the universe, the
smaller the sampling error.
• Sampling error is inversely related to the size of the
95
sample, i.e., sampling error decreases, as sample size
• Sampling error is usually the product of the critical value
at a certain level of significance and the standard error.
• Non-sampling error may occur in the process of data
collection.
• There is no way to measure non-sampling errors.
• If measurement error or non-sampling error is added to
sampling error, we get total error.
Sampling frame
• Elementary units / group of such units may form the basis
of sampling process and they are called sampling units.
• List of all sampling units is known as sampling frame.
• If population is finite and the time frame is in the present
or past, then the frame may be identical with the
population.
• In most cases, they are not identical because it is often
impossible to draw a sample directly from population.
• The frame is either constructed by researcher for his study96
 Population

Sampling frame
Frame error
Sample
Chance error
Response
Response error

Sampling Error = Frame Error + Chance Error + Response Error.

97
 Sample Design Error
I Random Error can be reduced only by increasing sample size.
II Systematic Error: Minimize sample design and measurement
errors.
a) Sample design error is systematic error and results from an
error in sample design or sample procedures.
• Results due to sample design error may be biased for a
number of reasons.
b) Frame Error results from an inaccurate or incomplete sample
frame.
c) Population Specification Error results from incorrect
definition of universe or population, from which sample is
chosen.
d) Selection error results from flaws in research design.
• It is reduced or minimized by means of careful consideration
and definition of the population of interest. 98
 Measurement Error
• Measurement Error results from a variation between the information
being sought and that actually obtained by measurement process.
• Surrogate information error results from a discrepancy between
information needed to solve a problem and that sought by the
researcher.
• Interviewer error or bias is due to interaction between the interviewer
and the respondent.
• Measurement instrument bias: Error that results from the design of the
questionnaire or measurement instrument.
• Processing error is caused by mistakes in transferring information
from questionnaires to the computer. This is minimized by developing
and following rigid procedures for transferring data and supporting
quality control checks.
• Non-response bias: Error that results from a systematic difference
between those who do and do not respond to measurement
instrument.
• Response bias: Error that results from the tendency of people to
answer a question falsely, through deliberate misrepresentation 99 of
unconscious falsification.
 TOTAL ERROR

Random Sampling Systematic

Error Error (Bias)

Measurement
Surrogate Sample Design
Error
Information Error
Error
Processing Selection Frame
Error Interviewer
Error Error Error

Instrument Population
Error Specification
Error
Response
Response Error Non-Response
Bias Bias
100
TOTAL SURVEY ERROR AND ITS COMPONENTS
 Essentials of a Good Sampling
• Sample should be a true representative of universe, i.e.,
possessing all its characteristics.
• No bias in selecting the sample.
• All items should be independent of each other.
• Regulating conditions are same for all the individual items.
• Adequate to allow confidence in the stability of its
characteristics
• Possibility to measure sampling error.
• Aim at homogeneity of items as far as possible.
• Yields desired information with required reliability at
minimum cost
• Greater the accuracy required, larger should be the sample
101
size.
 Steps in Developing a Sampling Plan
i) Defining the Population of Interest: specify characteristics of those
individuals or things (e.g. companies, stores, etc) from which
information is needed to meet objectives of research.
• Specified in combination of characteristics: geography, demographic
characteristics, product or service use characteristics or awareness
measures.
ii) Choose Data Collection Method: Telephone interviewing has inherent
advantages and mail interviewing has inherent disadvantages in
regard to sampling.
iii) Choose Sampling Frame: Sampling frame is a list of population
elements or members from whom sampling units are selected.
• In ideal situation, the list is reliable, complete, appropriate and
accurate. Unfortunately, too often, we do not have such a list.
• As sampling frame is a true representative of population, developing
an appropriate sampling frame is more challenging one. 102
 Steps in Developing a Sampling Plan
iv) Selection of a Sampling Method depends on study objectives,
financial resources available, time limitations, accuracy of
estimates required, and nature of problem under investigation.
• Sampling methods are grouped under probability sampling
methods and non-probability sampling methods.
• Sample design for a given sample size and for a given cost,
should have a smaller error.
Determining the Sample Design
• All items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a
'universe' or 'population'.
• A complete enumeration of all items in population is the census
inquiry in which no element of chance for the omission of any
item is left and highest accuracy is obtained.
• Even the slightest element of error or inaccuracy in census will
103
get larger and larger as the number of observations increases.
 Steps in Developing a Sampling Plan . . .
• In census, there is no way of checking for bias or its extent
except through a resurvey or use of sample checks.
• Census involves a great deal of time, money and efforts.
• Hence, only a few items from universe are selected.
• Items selected constitute what is technically called a sample.
• Researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample.
Samples can be either probability or non ­probability samples.
v) Determine the Sample Size: Process of determining sample
size involves financial, statistical, and managerial issues.
• The larger the sample size, the lesser the sampling error.
• Larger samples cost more money, and the funds available for a
particular project are always limited.
• Determinants of sample size are: budget available, rules of
thumb, number of subgroups to be analyzed and use 104
of
statistical methods to be adopted for accuracy of estimates.
 Steps in Developing a Sampling Plan
vi) Development of Operational Procedures for Selecting
Sampling Elements
• Operational procedures in selecting sampling elements
depend upon whether a probability or non-probability
sample is used.
• In probability samples, procedures should be detailed,
clear, and unambiguous and should take all discretion
regarding selection of specific sample elements away
from interviewer.
vii) Execution of the sampling plan
• This final step involves the execution of the operational
sampling plan
• This step also includes adequate checking to make sure
105
that specified procedures are adhered to.
 Principles of Sampling
i) Principles of statistical regularity: A group of objects
randomly selected from a population possesses
characteristics of larger groups.
• This law operates only if samples are randomly chosen, i.e.,
every item of the population has equal chance of selection.
ii) Principles of large numbers: Large samples are more stable
in their characteristics than the small ones.
• Other things being equal, larger the sample size, more
accurate the results are to be.
Factors Determining Sample Size
• i) Nature of universe: If items of universe are homogenous, a
small sample can serve the purpose and vice-versa.
• ii) Number of classes proposed: If many class groups and
sub-groups are to be formed, a large sample would be
required because a small sample might not be able to give a
reasonable number of items in each class group. 106
 Factors Determining Sample Size
iii) Nature of study: Small sample for studies taken intensively
and continuously. Large sample for a general survey, but a
small sample is considered appropriate in technical surveys.
iv) Types of sampling: A small random sample is apt to be
much superior to a large but badly selected sample.
v) Standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence level:
Larger sample, if high standard of accuracy or level of
precision is to be kept. For doubling the accuracy for a fixed
significance level, sample size has to be increased four fold.
vi) Availability of finance: Large samples result in increasing
the cost of sampling estimates.
vii) Other considerations: Nature of units, size of population,
size of questionnaire, availability of trained investigators, the
conditions under which the sample is being conducted, the
107
time available for completion of the study and so on.
 Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling Non Probability Sampling

Methods Methods
1) Simple random 1) Convenience sampling.
sampling. 2) Judgment sampling.
3) Quota sampling.
2) Systematic sampling. 4) Snowball sampling.
3) Stratified sampling.
4) Cluster sampling.
108
 Probability Sampling Design
• Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or
‘chance sampling’.
• Every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in
the sample.
• In lottery method, individual units are picked up from the whole
group not deliberately but by some mechanical process.
• Results obtained from random sampling can be assured in
terms of probability, i.e., the errors of estimation or the
significance of results obtained from a random sample can be
measured and that is why random sample design is superior
than other deliberate sampling design.
• Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity,
i.e., on an average, the randomly chosen sample will have the
109
same composition and characteristics as that of the universe.
 Probability Sampling Design
Implications of simple random sampling:
i) A simple random sample from a finite population is chosen such
N
N
that each of C n possible samples has the same probability,1/ Cn,

of being selected. All choices are independent of one another.

• E.g., there is a finite population consisting of six elements (say,
a, b, c, d, e, f) i.e., N = 6.
• Suppose that we want to take a sample of size n = 3 from it.
ii) It gives each possible sample combination an equal probability
of being chosen.
• There are 20 possible distinct samples of the required size and
they consist of elements abc, abd, abe, abf, acd, ace, acf, ade,
adf, aef, bcd, bce, bcf, bde, bdf, bef, cde, cdf, cef and def.
• If we choose one of these samples such that each has the
110
probability 1/20 of being chosen, this is called a random sample.
Advantages of probability sampling
• i) Information could be obtained from a
representative cross section of the population of
interest.
• ii) Sampling errors can be computed.
• iii) Survey results are predictable to the total
population.
Disadvantages
• i) They are more expensive than non-probability
samples of the same size in most cases.
• ii) Probability samples take more time to design
and execute than non-probability samples. 111
 Simple Random Sampling
• Each sample element has a known and equal probability of
being the sample actually selected.
• It is drawn by a random procedure from a sample frame, which
is a list containing an exclusive and exhaustive enumeration of
all sample elements.
Selection of Simple Random Sample
• Write each of the possible samples on a slip of paper, mix them
thoroughly in a container and draw as a lottery either
blindfolded or by rotating a drum or similar device like box/bag.
• Required number of slips for the sample can be picked up one
after the other without replacement.
• In successive drawings, each of the remaining elements of
population has the same chance of being selected. This
procedure results in the same probability for each sample. 112
 Simple Random Sampling
• If population has 6 elements out of which 3 samples are
selected, probability of drawing any one element in the first
draw is 3/6, probability of drawing one more element in the
second draw is 2/5, (first element drawn is not replaced) and
probability of drawing one more element in third draw is 1/4.
• Since these draws are independent, joint probabilities of three
elements which constitute sample is the product of their
individual probabilities, i.e., (3/6) × (2/5) × (1/4) = 1/20.
• Process of random sampling has been further simplified by
statisticians like Tippett, Yates and Fisher who have prepared
tables of random numbers which can be used for selecting a
random sample.
• Tippett selected 41,600 digits from census reports and
combined them into four digits to give his random numbers
113
which may be used to obtain a random sample.
First thirty sets of Tippett’s numbers
2952 6641 3992 9792 7979 5911
3170 5624 4167 9525 1545 1396
7203 5356 1300 2693 2370 7483
3408 2769 3563 6107 6913 7691
0560 5246 1112 9025 6008 8126
• Select 10 units from a population of 5000 units, bearing numbers from
3001 to 8000.
• Select 10 such figures from the above random numbers which are not
less than 3001 and not greater than 8000.
• If we randomly decide to read the table numbers from left to right,
starting from the first row itself, we get the following numbers: 6641,
3992, 7979, 5911, 3170, 5624, 4167, 7203, 5356 and 7483.
• Units bearing the serial numbers constitute required random sample.
• Simple random sampling is not widely used in marketing research,
especially in consumer research.
• Industrial marketing research has a greater scope for its application.
• Although simple random sampling is easy to analyze the data, larger 114
errors are obtained for same size in the absence of its stratification.
 Systematic Sampling
• Picking some random point in the list and then every nth
element is selected until the desired number is secured.
• E.g., select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one
side of the street and so on.
• Systematic sampling is an improvement over a simple random
sample – it spreads over evenly over the entire population.
• Main drawback: If there is a hidden periodicity in the
population, systematic sampling will be an inefficient method.
• For instance, every nth item produced by a certain production
process is defective.
• We either get all the defective items or all good items in our
sample depending upon the random starting position.
• In practice, systematic sampling is used when list of population
is available and it is of considerable length. 115
 Stratified Sampling
• Stratification describes the social, economic, cultural and other
expressions of inequality and carries with it the strata / layers.
• If a population does not constitute a homogeneous group,
stratified sampling is used to obtain a representative sample.
• Population is divided into different homogenous groups / strata
based on one or more characteristics such as frequency of
purchase of a product, type of customer (e.g. Credit vs. Non -
credit), or the industry in which a company competes.
• In such cases, a separate sample is taken from each stratum.
• Since each stratum is more homogeneous than total
population, more precise estimates for each stratum are
obtained and by estimating accurately each of the component
parts, a better estimate of the whole is obtained. 116
 Stratified Sampling
How to form strata?
• Strata formed ensure elements being most homogeneous
within each stratum and most heterogeneous between different
strata.
• Strata are purposively formed based on past experience and
personal judgment of the researcher.
• Relationship between characteristics of population and the
characteristics to be estimated is used to define the strata.
• Pilot study may be conducted for determining a more
appropriate and efficient stratification plan.
How should items be selected from each stratum?
• Items for sample from each stratum are selected by simple
117
random sampling method.
 Stratified Sampling
How many items should be selected from each stratum or
how to allocate the sample size of each stratum?
• Sizes of the samples from different strata are kept proportional
to the sizes of the strata.
• If Pi is proportion of population included in stratum i, and n
represents total sample size, number of elements selected from
stratum i is n.Pi.
• Let a sample of size n = 30 to be drawn from a population of
size N = 8000 to be divided into 3 strata of size N1 = 4000,
N2 = 2400, N3 = 1600.
• Adopting proportional allocation, for strata with N1 = 4000,
P1 = 4000/8000 and hence n1 = n.P1 = 30(4000/8000) =15.
• For strata with N2 = 2400, n2 = n. P2 = 30 (2400 / 8000) = 9, and
for strata with N3 = 1600, n3 = n.P3 = 30 (1600 / 8000) = 6. 118
 Stratified Sampling and Cluster Sampling
Proportional allocation is efficient and an optimal design:
(i) when cost of selecting an item is equal for each stratum;
(ii) there is no difference within stratum variances; and
(iii) purpose of sampling is to estimate the population value of
some characteristic.
• But if the purpose is to compare differences among strata, then
equal sample selection for each stratum would be more efficient
even if the strata differ in sizes.
Cluster Sampling
• Researcher is interested in characteristics of some basic
elements in the population (e.g. individual family attitudes
towards a new product) and so he selects primary sampling
units on a larger level than individual family basis.
• Sometimes, he may choose to sample city blocks or clusters
119
and interview all the individual families residing therein.
 Cluster Sampling
• Each block consists of a cluster of respondents.
• A cluster sample is one in which simple random or stratified
random sampling is followed to sample primary sample units,
each containing more than one sample element.
• All elements within the selected primary units are sampled.
• E.g., There are 20000 machine parts in the inventory at a
given point of time, stored in 400 cases of 50 each.
• Under cluster sampling, consider 400 cases as clusters and
randomly select ‘n’ cases and examine all the machine parts in
each randomly selected case.
• Advantage in cluster sampling: Only clusters or blocks would
be selected at random and not all the individual families.
• Advantage of cluster sample over simple random sampling is
in lower interviewing costs rather than the greater reliability.
120
 Area Sampling
• Area sampling refers to primary sampling of
geographical areas (countries, townships, blocks, etc)
• If clusters happen to be geographic subdivisions, then
cluster sampling is area sampling.
• Therefore, the plus and minus points of cluster
sampling are also applicable to area sampling.
• If only one level of sampling takes place (e.g.
sampling of blocks) before the basic elements are
sampled (e.g. the households), it is a single stage
area sample.
• If more than one successive samples within a larger
area are taken before settling on final clusters, the
resulting design is called a multistage area sample.121
 Multi-Stage Sampling
• Multi-stage sampling is a further development of cluster
sampling.
• Suppose we take a sample of few nationalized banks in
India to investigate their working efficiency
• First stage is to select large primary sampling unit (states
in India)
• Select certain districts and interview all banks in the
chosen districts. This is a two – stage sampling design.
• Instead of taking a census of all banks within selected
districts, select certain towns and interview all banks in
the chosen towns. This is a three – stage sampling design.
• If samples are selected randomly at all stages, then it is
known as ‘multi-stage random sampling design’. 122
 Multi-Stage Sampling
• Multi – stage sampling is applied in big inquiries for a large
geographical area.
Advantages
(a) Easier to administer than most single stage designs because
sampling frame under multi-stage sampling is developed in
partial units.
(b) A large number of units can be sampled for a given cost
because of sequential clustering.
• One should resort to simple random sampling because under it,
bias is eliminated and sampling error can be estimated.
• But purposive sampling is considered more appropriate when
the universe happens to be small and a known characteristic of
it is to be studied intensively.
• In a situation where random sampling is not possible, we have
123
to use non-random sampling techniques.
 Non - Probability Sampling Methods
• Non-probability sampling does not afford any basis for estimating
probability of each item in population, being included in sample.
• Researcher deliberately selects items for sample which is typical or
representative of whole; his choice concerning items remains supreme.
• E.g., If economic conditions of people of a state are to be studied, a few
towns and villages which could represent the entire state may be
purposively selected for intensive study.
i) Quota sampling: Commonly employed in marketing research.
• Sizes of various subclasses (strata) in population are first estimated from
some outside source, such as Bureau of the Census data.
• One may use census data to find out the proportion of the adult
population that fall into various age - by - sex - by - education classes.
• Advantages are lower costs and greater convenience provided to
interviewer in selecting respondents to fill each quota.
• Relatively inexpensive but inferences drawn on their basis are not
124
amenable to statistical treatment in a formal way.
 Judgment sampling
• Researcher can carefully and consciously choose
elements to be included in sample so that samples suit
ones needs.
• Intent is to select elements that are believed to be typical
or representative of the population in such a way that
errors of judgment in selection will cancel each other
out.
• Advantages: Low cost, convenient to use, less time -
consuming, and as good as probability sampling.
• Weakness: Its value depends entirely on the expert
judgment of the researcher.
• Without an objective basis for making judgments or
without an external check, there is no way of knowing 125
Convenience sampling
• Covers a variety of ad hoc procedures for selecting
respondents.
• This means that sampling units are accessible, convenient and
easy to measure, cooperative or articulate.
Snowball sampling
• Also known as multiplicity sampling in which initial respondents
are selected randomly but additional respondents are then
obtained from referrals or by other information provided by the
initial respondents.
• In this method, referrals from referrals are obtained, and the
process is continued till required number of respondents is
interviewed, thus sampling procedure is called “snowballing”.
• One purpose of snowball sampling is to estimate various
characteristics that are in the total population. 126
 Non-probability samples
Advantages
• Cost lesser than probability samples. Exploratory research is an
example of this type of situation.
• It can be conducted more quickly than probability samples.
• It can produce samples of population that are reasonably
representative, if executed properly.
Disadvantages
• Sampling error can not be computed.
• Researcher does not know the degree to which the sample is
representative of the population from which it was drawn.
• Results can not be projected to total population.
• Investigator may select a sample which shall yield results
favourable to his point of view and if that happens, entire
enquiry may get vitiated. Thus, there is a danger of such bias.
• If investigators are impartial, results may be tolerably reliable.
127
 DATA COLLECTION
Data Collection
• Data collection begins after identification of research
problem.
• To implement plans of research, appropriate methods of
data collection must be used.
• Methods of observation are systematic, and standard
procedures are available for obtaining the data.
Data (singular ‘datum’) refers to facts from which other facts
may be deduced.
• ‘Empirical’ means ‘based on observation’ or subject to
verification by observation or experiment’. Empirical data
are facts that are obtained by observation / experiment.
i) Data are defined as facts, figures or any other known
information available.
ii) Data are the relevant materials of the past and present
128
serving as bases for study and analysis.
Types of data: i) Primary data and ii) Secondary data.
i)Primary data are collected afresh, i.e., for the first time, and
these happen to be original in character.
• They are collected during the course of doing experiments.
• They are obtained either through observation or through direct
communication with respondents.
ii) Secondary data have already been collected by someone else
and which have been passed through the statistical process.
• They are available from a variety of sources and most frequently
consulted source is a library.
• University libraries have academically relevant materials.
• Research firms and Universities also maintain their own
specialized libraries, which they may allow others to use.
• Public libraries carry books of more general interest and
business relevant materials.
• Government libraries handle government documents and
commercial libraries carry documents of interest to clients of
129
many commercial organizations and corporations.
• Government agencies, corporations, trade and other
professional organizations produce substantial information.
• Researcher has to use catalogues, encyclopaedia and other
general reference works. He should begin with current
publication and work back through earlier issues.
• Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished
data. Usually published data are available in:
i)various publications of the central, state and local governments;
ii) various publications of foreign governments or of international
bodies and their subsidiary organizations;
iii) technical and trade journals;
iv) books, magazines, and newspapers;
v) reports and publications of various associations connected
with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.;
vi)reports prepared by researchers, universities in different fields;
vii) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other
sources of published information. 130
• Unpublished data are found in diaries, letters, unpublished
biographies and autobiographies and are also available with
scholars and research workers, trade associations and other
public private individuals and organizations.
Other facilities and services for gathering information are:
i) Experts and Authorities
• Information from well experienced persons / experts in specified
area of investigation, who are competent to give background
information based on their expertise on the particular situation.
• Trade and professional associations, chambers of commerce,
executives and researchers are all important sources and
information on their experiences could be easily obtained.
• Sorted impressions and conclusions based on experiences are
often the only source of information on some topics.
• A few telephone calls to knowledgeable experts are sometimes
all that is required to obtain a piece of information. 131
ii) Recorded Data and Records
• Every organization generates data as a routine operation.
• Letters, memoranda, sales contracts, purchase orders, service
orders, client records, accounting records, etc. are all potentially
valuable information sources.
iii) Commercial Information Service
• Many firms are engaged in the business of collecting and selling
information. Such information may be available in published
summary form but it also may be available as raw data.
• These summaries or raw data may be accessible in hard copy
format, or they may be accessible through electronic networks.
iv) CD – ROM / Pen Drive
• The need to access information quickly and reliably has grown
hand in hand with the adoption of home and laptop computers.
• Compact Disc - Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) technology of the
microcomputers uses about 650 megabytes (the equivalent 132
of
almost 300 pages) of information or even more on a single disc.
By way of caution, before using secondary data, we must see that
they possess following characteristics:
i) Reliability of Data: The reliability can be tested by finding out
• (a) who collected the data?
• (b) what were the sources of data?
• (c) were they collected by using proper methods?
• (d) at what time were they collected?
• (e) what level of accuracy was desired? was it achieved?
ii) Suitability of Data: Researcher must scrutinize the definition of
various terms and units of data collected at the time of
collecting from the primary source originally.
• Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the original enquiry
must also be studied.
iii) Adequacy of Data: If accuracy level achieved in data is found
inadequate for the purpose of present study, they should not be
used by the researcher. 133
Sources of Primary Data
• Three sources of primary data are as indicated below:
i) Experimental Method
• Has limited application, since social sciences experiments
cannot be conducted under controlled conditions due to
complex and shifting nature of human behaviour.
• However, application of the experimental method to social
sciences is now being applied.
• E.g., in order to assess the impact of modern technology
on the behaviour of farmers in terms of its use, the sample
would be divided into two groups:
• a) experimental group which has to receive the modern
critical inputs, and
• b) group that was following traditional practices is treated
as control. We evaluate and compare the performance of
experimental and control groups in terms of their earnings.
134
ii) Survey Method
• Social science problems require systematic collection of data
from population or samples of population through personal
interviews or use of other data gathering devices.
Characteristics of survey method
• a) It gets response directly from respondents.
• b) It is based on a representative sample of population.
• c) It gives maximum possible information for a given amount of
effort and expenditure involving a large number of respondents.
Three types of surveys: a) complete enumeration,
• b) case study and
• c) sample survey.
a) Complete Enumeration
• Refers to study of all individuals in the universe (population
census, cattle census, etc.) conducted by Govt. of India.
• This method is beyond the scope of social sciences projects135
due to resource restrictions (time, money and personnel)
b) Case Study
• An intensive investigation and analysis of individuals or families
to get a complete picture of their traits and characteristics.
A case has the following three important characteristics:
i) Characters which are common to every individual in the species
to which he belongs.
ii) Variations of these common attributes which are characteristic
of groups within the species,
iii) Other characteristics which belong uniquely to the individual
and distinguish it from every other individual within the species.
It would be misleading to make generalizations on the basis of
one or a small number of cases.
c) Sample Survey
• An examination of a few individual cases is not conducive to
provide a basis for generalization.
• Nor is a complete enumeration embodying the whole population
feasible, as it is too expensive and long time consuming.
• The most appropriate way for a majority of the research projects
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is to study the sample of the whole population.
Methods Used for Collecting Primary Data
• i) Observation method
• ii) Questionnaire method
• iii) Interview method
i) Observation Method
• This method especially relates to behavioural sciences.
• Information is sought by way of investigator’s own observation
without asking from the respondent.
• Observation about the individual’s behaviour is made without
his / her knowledge.
Advantages: (a) Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is
done accurately.
• b) Information obtained relates to what is currently happening;
it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future
intentions or attitudes.
• c) This is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond.
• d) Researcher can record information as it occurs.
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• e) It is a tool marked by reliability and authenticity.
Disadvantages: a) Expensive method.
• b) Information provided by this method is very limited.
ii) Interview Method
• Interview is a face-to-face interpersonal role situation in which
one person, the interviewee, asks a persons being interviewed,
the respondent, questions designed to obtain answers, pertinent
to the research problem.
• This method can be used through personnel interviews and, if
possible, through telephone interviews.
a) Personal Interview
• This method requires a person known as the interviewer asking
questions generally in a face-to-face contact to other person(s).
• This method is carried out systematically in a structured way.
Such interviews involve the use of a set of pre-determined
questions and of highly standardized techniques of recording.
• Interviewer in personal interview (which is otherwise known as
‘structured interviews’) follows a rigid procedure and asks
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questions in a form and order prescribed.
• Unstructured interviews have a flexible approach of questioning and
they do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standard
techniques of recording information.
Personal interview may be a direct or indirect oral investigation.
• 1) Direct Personal Investigation: Interviewer has to collect the
information personally from the sources concerned. This may be
particularly suitable for intensive investigations.
• 2) Indirect Oral Investigation: This is useful where direct personal
investigation may be difficult to carry out. Interviewer has to cross
examine other persons who are supposed to have knowledge about
the problem under investigation.
• Most of the commissions and committees appointed by government to
carry on investigations make use of this method.
• Merits: i) More information and that too in great depth can be obtained.
• ii) Interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of
general population.
• iii) Opportunity to restructure the question is possible.
• iv) Personal information can be obtained easily.
• v) Sample can be controlled more effectively and non response
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generally remains very low.
• Weakness: i) Expensive and time consuming method.
• ii) Possibility of the bias of the interviewer.
• iii) Sometimes imaginary information may be given in presence
of the interviewer just to make the interview interesting.
• iv) Training is needed for the interviewer.
b) Telephone Interview: Collecting information consists of
contacting respondents over telephone itself.
• It is not a very widely used method, but plays important role in
surveys, particularly in developed regions.
• Advantages: a) No field staff is required.
• b) It is a quick way of obtaining information.
• c) It is cheaper than personal interviewing method.
• d) Recall is easy. Call-backs are simple and economical.
• e) Non-response is low when compared to mailing method.
• f) Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to
respondents.
• g) At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise
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cannot be contacted for one reason or the other.
Demerits: (a) Little time is given to respondents for replying answers.
• b) Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.
• c) Not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers
are required to various questions; probes are difficult to handle.
Types of interview
• i) Structured interview (Formal, standardized): Uses a pre-determined
questions, and highly standardized techniques of recording.
• ii) Unstructured interviews (Informal, unstandardized): Characterized
by a flexibility of approach to questioning. Do not follow a system of
pre-determined questions and standardized techniques of recording.
• iii) Non structured interview: Interviewer is allowed much greater
freedom to ask. In case of need, supplementary questions may be
added or he may omit certain questions and even change the
sequence of questions.
• iv) Repetitive interview: It is repetitive in nature when it is desired to
note the gradual influence of some social or psychological process.
• v) Focused interview: It is meant to focus attention on the given
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experience of the respondent and its effects.
Sequence of Procedures of Interviewing
• i) Explain the purpose and objectives of the research.
• ii) Describe the method by which the respondent was
selected.
• iii) Reveal the identity of the sponsor (or) the agency
conducting the research.
• iv) State anonymous (or) confidential nature of interview.
• For the successful implementation of the interview method,
interviewers should be carefully selected and trained.
• They should be honest, sincere, hardworking, impartial and
must possess the technical competence and necessary
practical experience.
• Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that
interviewers are not deviating from instructions given to
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them in performing their interviews efficiently.
• Every effort should be made to create friendly atmosphere
of trust and confidence, so that respondents may feel at
ease while discussing with the interviewer.
• Interviewer must ask questions properly and intelligently
and must record the responses accurately and completely.
• Interviewer must answer legitimate question(s) asked by
respondent and must clear any doubt that the latter has.
• Interviewer should not show surprise or disapproval of a
respondent’s answer but he must keep the direction of
interview in his own hand, discouraging irrelevant
conversation and must make all possible effort to keep the
respondent on the track.
• Respondents should be encouraged to give his opinion
naturally and freely on the point.
• Interviewer should in no way argue with the respondent
nor should he insist on a particular point. 143
Interview Schedule
• Interview is an art, but the planning and writing of an interview
schedule is even more so.
The construction of interview schedule consists of three steps:
• (i) making the schedule,
• (ii) pre- testing the schedule and
• (iii) revising the schedule.
Three kinds of information are included in most schedule.
• i) Face sheet information
• ii) Census type information
• iii) Problem information
Two types of schedule items are in common use.
• i) Fixed alternative items: This offers the respondent a choice
among two or more alternatives. `Yes' or `No';
• ii) Open end items: Open end questions supply a frame of
reference for respondents to answer, but put in minimum 144
of
restriction on the answer and their expressions.
Questionnaire
• This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly, in
case of big enquires.
• Adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and
public organizations and even by governments.
• Questionnaire is a form containing a series of questions and it is
sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a request
to answer the questions and return the same.
• The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to
read and understand the questions and write down the reply
Types of Questionnaire
i) Mailed questionnaire: Used when the respondents cannot be
personally contacted or they can be contacted at a huge cost.
ii) Closed form type of questionnaire: Known as pre-coded type of
questionnaire in which the respondents are required to give a
short restricted answer either by marking the given answers or
by checking the answers from a list of suggested answers. 145
iii) Open type of questionnaire: Respondents are forced to
respond in their own words.
• Visually the answers are longer than those given in the closed
form type of questionnaire.
iv) Distributed questionnaire: Questionnaires are distributed to a
group of respondents, their doubts are cleared and respondents
are helped to fill up the questionnaires simultaneously.
• In this method, more number of responses can be collected from
a group quickly and at ease with less cost.
• But the respondents should be educated and cooperative.
Guidelines for Constructing a Good Questionnaire / Schedule
• The framer of the questionnaire should be constantly in search
of solution to the problem under investigation.
• He should clearly understand the purpose of questionnaires and
the nature of information required from the informants.
• Appropriate form of questionnaire depends on nature of problem
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and social and educational level of the respondents.
• Questions are clear such that a misunderstanding is impossible,
and so framed that answers will be perfectly definite.
• Forms must contain necessary instructions, making mistakes
difficult, but must not be too complex.
Following criteria would be useful in evaluating the questionnaire
before sending it to the informants.
i) Questionnaire should be concerned with specific topics which
must be regarded as relevant by the respondents.
ii) It should be seen whether the main questions require
supplementary questions to balance the emphasis or to get
fuller information.
iii) Questions should not be biased towards one direction.
iv) Questions of private nature should be avoided as they would
lead to evasion by the respondents.
v) Appropriate questions depends on nature of information
sought, sampled respondents and the type of analysis intended.
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vi) Questionnaire / Schedule should be prepared, giving due
thought to the appropriate sequence of framing questions.
• Questions should be presented in a good logical order
proceeding from general to specific responses.
• Previously prepared questionnaire / schedule (if available) may
also referred.
vii) Questionnaire, as far as possible, is to be short.
viii) Directions and wording of questionnaire should be simple.
ix) The questions should be objective.
x) Embarrassing questions, presuming questions and
hypothetical questions should be avoided.
xi) Pilot survey should be undertaken for pre-testing the
questionnaire. Questionnaire may be edited in the light of the
results of the pilot study.
xii) Questionnaire must be attractive in appearance. Questions
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asked should in the language of the respondents.
Merits
i) Low cost.
ii) Free from the biasness of interviewer.
iii) Respondents have adequate time to give well thought of
answers.
iv) Respondents who are not easily approachable can also be
reached constantly.
v) Large samples can be used of and the results can be made
more dependable and reliable.
Demerits
i) It can be used only when respondents are educated and
cooperating.
ii) The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
iii) Possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies,
altogether to certain questions.
iv) This method is slowest of all.
v) Low rate of return of the duly filed in questionnaires. Due to
non response, the result is often indeterminate. 149
Questionnaire Interview Schedule
1. Questionnaire contains a series of A schedule consists of a form containing
questions for which the respondents series of questions, which are asked and
themselves fill up an answer and return filled in by the investigator in a face-to-face
through mail. situation.
2. Respondent are able to read and fill it up. Respondents simply answers orally.
3. Questionnaire can be mailed, if the If distance is too long and respondents are
distance is too much. scattered, this is difficult to carry out.
4. When several respondents are available Each and every respondent should be
at the same time and place, a questionnaire interviewed separately.
is very economical tool of data collection.
5. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong The information collected is generally
information when people are unable to complete and accurate.
understand questions properly.
6. Success depends upon the quality of the Success depends upon the competence
questionnaire. and honesty of enumerator.
7. To collect data through questionnaire is To collect data through interview schedule
relatively cheap. is relatively more expensive.
8. Time consuming exercise. Data can be collected relatively in a short
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time.