Guiding question: How do we

quantify matter on the atomic

Structure 1.4 scale?

Time:
Counting particles by mass: The mole SL and HL - 7 h
AHL - none

1
1. MgO
2. H2O
3. Al2O3
4. Li3PO4
5. Mg(NO3)2

Prior knowledge: What is the ratio of elements in each of these chemical

formulas?
2
SL and HL content

3
 Part A
Amounts in chemistry

4
1. If you were shopping for 12 eggs, what would you ask for?
2. If you wanted the three Lord of the Rings films, what would you ask for?
3. How do we describe 2 goals scored by the same person in football?
4. How many pieces of paper are in a ream?
5. If you wanted 6.02 x 1023 atoms, what would you ask for?

Units for amounts

Dealing with very large amounts of very small things

In 18.02 cm3 of distilled water…

…there are 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 water molecules.

6
Avogadro’s number and moles

7
Avogadro’s constant, Na

Avogadro’s constant, Na =

Complete the sentence for Avogadro’s constant:

For every…

8
Amount of substance

How many atoms would be found in:

a. 1 mol of atoms
b. 2 mol of atoms
c. 10 mol of atoms
d. 0.1 mol of atoms

9
Formula: amount of substance (mol)

n (mol) =

10
Relationship between number of particles and amount (mol)

11
Calculating the number of particles from moles of a substance

How many atoms of hydrogen are there in 2 moles of H2O?

12
Quick check

How many atoms of hydrogen are there in…?

1. 0.5 mol H2O

2. 0.2 mol NH4Cl

3. 1 mol Al(NO3)3

13
Practice questions (try without a calculator)

1. Calculate the total number of protons and electrons in one mole of hydrogen gas.

2. Calculate the number of atoms of nitrogen in 0.50 mol of (NH4)CO3.

3. Calculate the total number of atoms in 0.100 mol of [Pt(NH3)2Cl2].

4. Calculate the number of ions in 0.20 mol of (NH4)3PO4.

14
 Part B
Relative atomic mass and
relative formula mass

15
 Dog

Mass (kg) 2.5 2.0 13.2

Relative mass 2.5 2.0 13.2

Why does relative mass not have any units?

16
Relative atomic mass and relative formula mass

What is the relative atomic mass, What is the relative formula mass,
Ar , of these atoms? Mr , of these molecules?
1. C 1. O2
2. O 2. CO2

17
Practice questions

1. What are the symbols for:

a. Relative atomic mass
b. Relative formula mass
2. Calculate the relative formula mass
for:
a. H2
b. H2O
c. NaCl
d. Mg(NO3)2
e. CuSO4ᐧ 5H2O

18
 Part C
Molar mass

19
At 4 oC, 0.500 mol of H2O molecules
have a volume of 9.01 cm3.

If the density of water at 4 oC is 1.00 g cm-3, what is the mass of 1 mole of H2O?
20
What is molar mass, M?

Complete the sentence for molar mass for water (M = 18.02 g mol-1):

For every…

21
How can we identify molar mass, M, from the periodic table?

Substance Ar or Mr (no units) M (g mol-1)

H 1.01

H 2O

CuSO4ᐧ 5H2O

22
Number of moles, mass and molar mass

M = molar mass (g mol-1)

n = amount (mol)
m = mass (g)

23
Relationship between amount (mol) and mass (g)

24
Quick check

1. 0.250 mol of an element has a mass of 4.75 g. State the name of the
element.

2. Calculate the amount (mol) in 13.49 g of aluminium powder.

3. Calculate the mass of 0.10 mol of carbon dioxide gas.

25
Relationship between number of particles, amount and mass

26
Retrieval practice: Significant figures

Measured value SFs

1.01
230
83040
0.005
0.0720
1.20 x 104

27
Practical: Calculating the number of atoms
1. Equipment: Aluminium drink can
and balance.
a. Calculate the number of
aluminium atoms in the can.
b. Calculate the % uncertainty in
your answer.
c. Calculate the absolute
uncertainty in your answer.
d. Identify any assumptions you
have made.
2. Equipment: £1 coin and balance.
a. Assuming 75% Cu and 25% by
mass in the coin, calculate the
number of atoms of each
element present.
b. Calculate the relative
uncertainty in your answer for
each element.
28
Practice questions A

1. Calculate the following for hydrated iron(II) sulfate, FeSO4ᐧ 7H2O powder.
a. the molar mass
b. the amount (mol) in 5.00 g
c. the number of oxygen atoms in the amount calculated in b

2. A diatomic molecule contains two different group 17 elements. 0.150 mol of

this compound has a mass of 8.18 g.
a. Identify the formula of the the compound.
b. Calculate the total number of protons in the 0.150 mol.

29
 Part D
Empirical formulas

30
1. C2H6

2. H2O

3. C6H6

4. C4H10O2

5. C2HF4Cl

An empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of elements in a

compound.

What is the empirical formula of these molecular formulas?

Practical: Calculating the empirical formula of magnesium oxide

1. Weigh a crucible and lid.

2. Clean an approx 6 cm Mg strip.
3. Record the mass of the strip and place in
the crucible with lid.
4. Heat the magnesium strip lifting the lid
briefly every 20 s.
5. When all magnesium has formed white
magnesium oxide powder, allow to cool and
then weigh.
6. Heat for a further 1 min and weigh again.
Repeat until constant mass is achieved. 32
IA practice: Data analysis

Complete this table to element Mg O

calculate the mass of
each element present in mass (g)
the white magnesium
oxide powder. amount (mol)

mole ratio

whole number
ratio
33
IA practice: Data analysis

Treatment of uncertainty:
a. Identify the absolute uncertainty in the raw data mass measurements.
b. Calculate the absolute uncertainty in the mass of oxygen.
c. Calculate the % uncertainty in the mass of Mg and the mass of O.
d. Calculate the total % uncertainty in the deduced empirical formula.

34
IA practice: Conclusion and evaluation
Conclusion
The literature empirical formula is
MgO. This 1:1 ratio can be expressed
in a single number as 1➗1 = 1.
Calculate the % error in your value:
Evaluation
Explain the relative impact of the
following sources of error:
a. MgO leaving the crucible when
the lid was removed.
b. Side reaction possible at high T:
3Mg + N2 → Mg3N2
c. Some Mg remaining unreacted.
35
 Part E
IA practice
● Data analysis
● Conclusion
● Evaluation

36
+ +

+ +d + sia

What are the 2 keywords?

37
What are hydrated compounds?

CuSO4ᐧ 𝑥 H2O (s) → CuSO4 (s) + 𝑥 H2 O

hydrated anhydrous

38
Practical: The empirical formula of hydrated copper(II) sulfate

1. Weigh a crucible.
2. Precisely weigh approx 2 g hydrated
copper(II) sulfate powder.
3. Heat the powder in the crucible.
4. When all magnesium has formed white
magnesium oxide powder, allow to cool
and then weigh.
5. Heat for a further 1 min and weigh
again. Repeat until constant mass is
achieved.
39
IA criteria

Data analysis

Conclusion

Evaluation
40
IA practice: Data analysis

This section should include:

● A record of any qualitative data that may be relevant to a source of error

● A raw quantitative data table
● An example calculation for each step used to convert the raw data into the
empirical formula for hydrated copper(II) sulfate
● A table of the processed quantitative data
● Treatment of uncertainty with example calculations
41
IA practice: Conclusion

The research question for this IA practice is: How accurate is the use of
gravimetric (mass) measurements to calculate the empirical formula of hydrated
compound?
This section should include a:
● response to the research question based on your data.
● consideration of the impact of uncertainty.
● % error in comparison to scientific literature.

42
IA practice: Evaluation

This section should include a consideration of:

● Relative impact of sources of error in the procedural steps. Either:
○ Random - equal probability of measurement being too high or too low
○ Systematic - measurement always too high or always too low
● Weaknesses in:
○ The precision of measurements (uncertainty)
○ Variations in the different data sets used
● Limitations in your ability to answer the research question
● Improvements to address each point above.
43
 Part F
Empirical formula practice

44
A sample of peroxyacylnitrate (PAN) contains the following:

element C N O H
% by mass 20.2 11.4 65.9

Determine the empirical formula of PAN.

45
Practice questions: Empirical formulas

1. A compound with molar mass of 60 g mol-1 contains 12 g carbon, 2 g

hydrogen and 16 g oxygen. What is the molecular formula of this
compound?
2. 4.00 mol of a hydrocarbon with an empirical formula of CH2 has a mass of
280 g. What is the molecular formula of this compound?
3. Menthol can be used in cough medicines. The compound contains 76.84%
C, 12.92% H and 10.24% O by mass. Calculate its empirical formula.

46
Practice questions: Empirical formulas of hydrated compounds

1. Hydrated zinc sulfate, ZnSO4 · nH2O, was found to have the following
percentages by mass: 23% zinc; 11% sulfur; 22% oxygen; 44% water. What is
the empirical formula?

2. A 5.00 g sample of hydrated barium chloride, BaCl2 · nH2O, is heated to drive

off the water. After heating, 4.26 g of anhydrous barium chloride, BaCl 2,
remains. What is the value of n in the hydrate formula?

47
 Part G
Molar concentration
(molarity)

48
Which solution contains the most particles per cm3?

49
What is a solution?

50
What is molar concentration?

C = molar concentration (mol dm-3)

n = amount of solute (mol)
V = volume of solution (dm3)

51
Quick check

1. Calculate the molar concentration of a solution containing 0.0250 mol

solute and a total volume of 25.0 cm3.

2. Calculate the number of moles of solute in 40.0 cm3 of a 0.500 mol dm-3
solution.

3. Calculate the volume, in cm3, of a 1.00 mol dm-3 solution that would contain
2.50 x 10-3 mol of solute.

52
Concentration in g dm-3

53
Practice questions

1. 3.00 g NaCl is dissolved in distilled water to make a 150.0 cm3 solution.

Calculate the concentration of this solution in mol dm-3 and g dm-3.

2. The molar concentration of a sodium carbonate solution, [Na2CO3] = 0.100

mol dm-3. Convert this to a concentration in g cm-3.

3. Calculate the mass of lithium fluoride, LiF, required to make a 300.0 cm3
solution with [LiF] = 2.00 mol dm-3.

54
 Part G
Molar concentration

55
Name these pieces of equipment.

56
What is a standard solution?

57
Making a standard solution: Selecting appropriate equipment

A solution requires 0.5 g of solute and a total volume of 20 cm3. Complete each
table and identify the most precise piece of equipment.

Absolute % uncertainty Absolute % uncertainty

Measurement Measurement of
uncertainty in uncertainty in
of mass solution volume
(g) measurement (cm3) measurement

Standard
±0.01 25 cm3 beaker ±5 cm3
balance

Precision 20 cm3 measuring

±0.001 ±0.5 cm3
balance cylinder

20 cm3 volumetric
±0.01 cm3
pipette
58
Technique: Making a standard solution

59
Practical (part A): Making a standard solution

Make a 250 cm3 standard solution of food colouring with a precisely known
concentration of approximately 2.00 g dm-3.

60
Practical (part B): Dilutions

As the moles of solute in a diluted solution will always be the same, C x V will be
equivalent before and after.

Formula:

61
Practical (part B): Dilutions

Use your standard solution and the following formula to make 100 cm3 solutions
with a concentration of:

A. 1.60 g dm-3
B. 1.20 g dm-3
C. 0.80 g dm-3
D. 0.40 g dm-3

62
Practical (part C): Colorimetry

For each of your 5 solutions, use a

colorimeter or spectrophotometer
to measure the maximum
absorbance at a suitable
wavelength.

63
Making a calibration curve

Plot a scatter graph with

trendline of concentration
(g dm-3) against
absorbance.
Find the equation of the
trendline.

64
Practice question A

A 280.0 cm3 standard solution of potassium hydrogen phthalate, C8H5KO4, was

made by dissolving 0.430 g in distilled water.
a. Calculate the concentration of this solution in g dm-3 and mol dm-3.
b. The uncertainty in the mass measurement was ± 0.001 g. Calculate the
relative uncertainty and then percentage uncertainty in this
measurement.
c. Outline how you would dilute this standard solution by a factor of 10 to
make a 100 cm3 solution.
d. State 2 pieces of precise equipment that would be required for this
dilution.

65
Practice question B

100 cm3 of a Cu2+

(aq) solution
produced an
absorbance of 0.50
at a wavelength of
600 nm.
Calculate the mass
of copper in the
solution.

66
Practice question C

The following symbols were found on a

container of anhydrous copper(II)
sulfate powder.
1. What hazards do these symbols
represent?
2. Which safety precautions might we
take when handling copper(II)
sulfate?
3. Why should we not dispose of solid
copper(II) sulfate in normal waste?

67
 Part H
Avogadro’s law

68
Exactly 1 mole of three different gases are placed inside three balloons.

Which would balloon would occupy the largest volume?

69
What is Avogadro’s law?

“Equal volumes of all gases, when measured at the same

temperature and pressure, contain an equal number of molecules.”

Represent this mathematically:

70
Explaining Avogadro’s law

71
Applying Avogadro’s law

2SO2(g) + 1O2(g) →
2SO3(g)

72
Practice questions

1. In the Haber process, N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) , what volume of nitrogen

and hydrogen would be required to produce 40.0 m3 of ammonia?
2. At room temperature and pressure, three balloons of identical volume
contain O2 , N2 and H2 gas respectively. Explain which balloon would have
the greatest mass.
3. Electrolysis is a process that can be used to separate liquid water into
oxygen and hydrogen gas. If 21.4 cm3 of oxygen gas is produced, calculate
the volume of hydrogen gas produced.
4. A gaseous hydrocarbon combusts completely in oxygen to form 100 cm3
carbon dioxide and 50 cm3. Calculate the empirical formula of the
hydrocarbon.
73
Guiding question and
review

74
How do we quantify matter on the atomic scale?

How do each of these symbols relate to the guiding question?

1. n
2. m
3. NA
4. Ar and Mr
5. M
6. C
7. V

75
Key terminology

1. A mole
2. Avogadro constant
3. Relative atomic mass and relative formula mass
4. Molar mass
5. Empirical formula
6. Molar concentration
7. Avogadro’s law

76
Past-paper questions

77
Retrieval practice

78
1. 0.50 mol of NH3
2. 0.10 mol of CH3CH2NH2
3. 1.0 mol water

Retrieval practice: Calculate the total number of atoms in…

79
1. H2
2. O2
3. Cl2
4. HCl
5. HClO3

Retrieval practice: Calculate the Mr of these compounds using the periodic

table.
80
A £1 pound coin weighs 8.75 ± 0.05 g.

1. Calculate the % uncertainty in the mass of the coin.

2. If the composition is 70% Cu, 5.5% Ni and 24.5% Zn, calculate the moles of
each element in the coin.
3. Calculate the number of atoms of each element. 81
 element C H O

mass (g) 12 2 16

amount (mol)

ratio

whole number ratio

Retrieval practice: Calculate the empirical formula of this compound.

82
 CH2O

Retrieval practice:
1. The empirical formula above is from a compound with a molar mass of 210
g mol-1. State its molecular formula.
2. Calculate the % by mass of carbon in this empirical formula.
83
1. Wood
2. Coca Cola
3. Seawater
4. Blood
5. Air
6. Steel

Retrieval practice: Which of the following are solutions?

84
Retrieval practice: 10 cm3 of a stock solution with a molar concentration of 2.00
mol dm-3 is made up to a total volume of 100 cm3. This process is then repeated
with the second solution. Calculate the concentration of the second and third
solution.
85
NOS and TOK

86
NOS/TOK: Improving measurements of NA

What do these examples suggest about how scientific knowledge progresses

over time?
● Maxwell’s estimate: 4.3 x 1023
● Kelvin’s estimate from the scattering of light by a gas: 5 x 1023
● Perrin’s consideration of Brownian motion: 6.5-6.9 x 1023
● Rutherford and Geiger using alpha emissions from Ra and U: 6.2 x 10 23
● Lecomte du Nouy used monolayers of sodium oleate: 6.004 x 1023
● Using charge on an e- and a mole of e-: 6.02214(154) x 1023
● Using the mass and crystal structure of pure 28 Si: 6.0220943 x 1023 ± 1.0 x
1017

87
NOS: Precision in data

Which of the following is the correct relative formula

mass, Mr , for a molecule of fluorine?
a. 38
b. 38.0
c. 38.00
d. 38.000
Why?

88
TOK: Changing definitions for the kilogram

Why is it preferable
to use universal
constants to define
units of mass instead
of a material object?

89
Extension

90
Extension

Why do some elements have whole number relative atomic masses in brackets?

91
Extension
Use the Beer-Lambert law to
calculate the molar coefficient
constant for the solute used in your
serial dilutions.
A = absorbance (no units)
ε = molar absorptivity coefficient
(mol-1 dm3 cm-1)
l = path length (cm)
C = concentration (mol dm-3)
92