Graphs and Trees

Mathematical Concepts For Computing
AQ010-3-1 (Version E)
GRAPHS AND TREES

TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic, You should be able to
• Understand the basic concepts of Graphs.
• Find the degree of a vertex.
• Construct simple undirect graph using handshaking theorem.
• Construct paths and circuits.
• Draw a planar graph.
• Find the shortest path.
• Use graph coloring to find the minimum number of colors.
• Understand the tree terminology.
• Understand the different tree traversals.
• Construct a spanning tree.
AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 2

Contents & Structure
 Introduction
 Definition
 Degree of a Vertex
 Graphs & Representations
 Paths & Circuits
 Shortest path
 Graph coloring
 Planar Graph
 Tree terminology
 Tree traversals
 Spanning tree

Graph
General meaning in everyday math:
• A plot or chart of numerical data using a coordinate system.
Technical meaning in discrete mathematics:

• A particular class of discrete structures (to be defined) that is useful for representing
relations and has a convenient webby-looking graphical representation.

Application of Graphs
• Social networks
– A friendship graph: two people are connected if they are Facebook friends.
• Communications networks
• Information networks
– In a web graph, web pages are represented by vertices and links are represented
by directed edges.
• Transportation networks

Graphs
A graph G = (V, E) consists of V, a nonempty set of vertices (or nodes), and E, a
set of edges. Each edge has either one or two vertices associated with it, called its
endpoints. An edge is said to connect its endpoints.
G=(V, E), where

v1 V={v1,v2,…, v7}
v5
E={{v1,v2}, {v1,v3}, {v2,v3}
v3 v4 {v3,v4}, {v4,v5}, {v4,v6}
v6
{v4,v7}, {v5,v6}, {v6,v7}}
v2 v7

Simple graph
A graph in which each edge connects two different vertices and where no two
edges connect the same pair of vertices is called a simple graph.
Example: Now suppose that a network is made up of data centers and communication
links between computers. We can represent the location of each data center by a point
and each communications link by a line segment, as shown in Figure 1.

Multigraph
Graphs that may have multiple edges connecting the same vertices are
called multigraph.

Pseudograph
Graphs that may include loops, and possibly multiple edges connecting the
same pair of vertices are called pseudographs.
(a loop: )

Directed graph
A directed graphs (or diagraph) (V, E) consists of non empty set of vertices
V and a set of directed edges (or arcs) E. Each directed edge is associated
with an ordered pair of vertices. The directed edge associated with the
ordered pair (u, v) is said to start at u and end at v.
Simple directed graphs: When a directed graph has no loops and no

multiple directed edges, it is called a simple directed graph.
u v The two edges (u,v),(u,v) are

multiedges.
The two edges (u,v), (v,u) are not
u v multiedges.

Simple directed graph

Directed graph
Directed multigraphs : Directed graph that may have multiples directed
edges from a vertex to a second(possibly the same) vertex to model
networks.

Graph Terminology
• Two vertices u and v in a undirected graph G are called adjacent (or neighbors) in G
if u and v are endpoints of an edge of G.
• If e is associated with {u, v}, the edge e is called incident with the vertices u and v.
Note : adjacent: a vertex connected to a vertex

incident: a vertex connected to an edge
• The degree of a vertex v, denoted by deg(v),in an undirected graph is the number of
edges incident with it, except that a loop at a vertex contributes twice to the degree of
that vertex.
(Note : A loop adds 2 to the degree.)

Degree- Undirected graph
Example 1: What are the degrees of the vertices in the graph H ?
a b Sol : deg(a)=4
c
deg(b)=6
deg(c)=1
deg(d)=5
e d f
deg(e)=6
H deg(f)=0
Note: A vertex of degree 0 is called isolated.

Degree - Directed Graph
• in-degree of a vertex v, deg-(v) - the number of edges with v as their
terminal vertex.
• out-degree of v, deg+(v) - the number of edges with v as their initial
vertex.
• A loop at a vertex contributes 1 to both the in-degree and the out-
degree of this vertex.
• Let G=(V, E) be a graph with directed edges. Then

In-degree & Out-degree
Example 2: Find the in-degree and out-degree of each vertex in the graph
with directed edges shown below.
In –degree Out–degree

The Handshaking Theorem
Let G = (V, E) be an undirected graph with e edges (i.e., |E| = e). Then
 deg(v)  2e
vV
Example 3:
a b c
The graph H has 11 edges, and
 deg(v)  22
vV
e d f
H
The Handshaking Theorem (Cont.…)
Example 4: How many edges are there in a graph with 10 vertices each of
degree six?
Sol :10  6 = 2e  e=30
Example 5: How many edges are there in a graph with 5 vertices each of
degree 3?
Sol :5  3 = 2e  e=7.5 Graph doesn’t exist.
Example 6: Draw a simple undirected graph whose degree sequence is

(a) (1, 1, 2, 2, 4) (b) (0, 0, 1, 1) (c) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

Graphs Representation
• There are several ways to represent graphs.
• Adjacency list – specify the vertices that are adjacent to each vertex of the graph.
• Adjacency Matrices – the n × n zero-one matrix with
 1 as its (i, j)th entry when vi and vj are adjacent.
 0 as its (i, j)th entry when vi and vj are not adjacent.
• G=(V, E) : simple graph, V={v1,v2,…,vn}. A matrix A is called the adjacency
matrix of G if A=[aij]nn , where
aij = 1, if {vi,vj}E,
0, otherwise.

Representing Graphs – Adjacency List
Example 7: Use adjacency lists to describe the simple graph given below.
Sol : Vertex Adjacent Vertices

b a b,c,e
b a
a c
c a,d,e
d c,e
e d
e a,c,d

Representing Graphs – Adjacency List
Example 8:
b
Initial Terminal vertices
c vertex
a
a b,c,d,e
b b,d
c a,c,e
d -
e d e b,c,d

Representing Graphs – Adjacency Matrix
Example 9: Use adjacency matrix to describe the simple graph given

below.
a a b c d
b a 0
1 1 1
1 0 1 1
b
A1   
c 1 1 0 0
c d  
d 1 1 0 0
Note:
1.There are n! different adjacency matrices for a graph with n vertices.
2.The adjacency matrix of an undirected graph is symmetric.

Representing Graphs – Adjacency Matrix
Example 10. (Pseudograph)
a b c d
a b a 0 3 0 2
b 3 0 1 1 
A 
c 0 1 1 2
 
d
c
d 2 1 2 0
If A=[aij] is the adjacency matrix for the directed graph, then
1 , if
vi vj
aij =
0 , otherwise
Graph Representation
Example 11: Use adjacency list and adjacency matrix to represent the graph:
a b c
e d

Paths and Circuits
• A path is a sequence of edges that begins at a vertex of a graph and travels from
vertex to vertex along edges of the graph.
• As the path travels along its edges, it visits the vertices along this path, that is, the
endpoints of these edges.
• The path is a circuit if it begins and ends at the same vertex.

Euler Paths and Circuits
• An Euler circuit in a graph G is a simple circuit containing every edge of G.

• An Euler path in G is a simple path containing every edge of G.
• A connected multigraph with at least two vertices has an Euler circuit if and only if
each of its vertices has even degree.
• A connected multigraph has an Euler path (but not an Euler circuit) if and only if it
has exactly 2 vertices of odd degree.

Konigsberg- in days past
Is it possible to start at some

location in the town, travel
across all the bridges once
without crossing any bridge
twice, and return to the
starting point ?
c
a d
b
Euler Paths and Circuits
Example 12: Which of the following graphs has an Euler circuit?
a b a b a b
e e
d c d c c d e
yes no no, but has Euler path

(a, e, c, d, e, b, a) (a, c, d, a, b, d,, e, b)
Exercise
Find the
a) Degree
b) Adjacency List
c) Adjacency Matrix
d) Euler Circuit
e) Euler Path

Hamilton Paths and Circuits
• A Hamilton path is a path that traverses each vertex in a graph G exactly once.
• A Hamilton circuit is a circuit that traverses each vertex in G exactly once.
Example 13: Which of the following graphs have a Hamilton

circuit or a Hamilton path?
a b g
a b a b
G1 G2
e c
d c d c e f
d G3
Hamilton circuit: G1 Hamilton path: G2
Hamilton Circuits
Dodecahedron puzzle and it equivalent graph
Is there a circuit in this graph that passes through each vertex

exactly once?
Hamilton Circuits
Yes; this is a circuit that passes through each vertex exactly once.

Hamilton circuit- properties
If a graph G has a Hamilton circuit, then G has a subgraph H with the following
properties:
1. H contains every vertex of G.
2. H is connected.
3. H has the same number of edges as vertices.
4. Every vertex of H has degree 2.
Articulation point: A vertex in an undirected connected graph is an

articulation point (or cut vertex) iff removing it (and edges through it)
disconnects the graph.

Hamilton circuit
Example 14: Which of the following graphs have a Hamilton circuit?
Hamilton circuit Exists

Hamilton circuit
Hamilton circuit doesn’t exist because

the graph has Articulation vertex “c”.

Hamilton circuit
Hamilton circuit doesn’t exist because

the graph has Articulation vertex “e”.

Activity
Find the Hamilton circuit.

Weighted Graphs
• Graphs that have a number assigned to each edge are called weighted graphs.
• Many problems can be modeled using graphs with weights assigned to their
edges.
Example: Weighted Graphs Modeling an Airline system Consider how an airline
system can be modeled. We set up the basic graph model by representing cities by
vertices and flights by edges.
DISTANCE: Problems involving

distances can be modeled by assigning
distances between cities to the edges.

Weighted Graphs
TIME: Problems involving flight time can

be modeled by assigning flight times to
edges.
FARE: Problems involving fares can be

modeled by assigning fares to edges.

Weighted Simple Graphs
Example 15: What is the length of a shortest

path between a and z in the weighted graph
shown in Figure ?
Answer:
The shortest path is : a-d-e-z and the length of the shortest path from a to z is 6
(2+3+1).

Example of Hamilton Circuit
Travelling Salesman Problem: A Hamilton circuit or path may be used to solve

practical problems that require visiting “vertices”, such as:
– road intersections
– pipeline crossings
– communication network nodes
A classic example is the Travelling Salesman Problem finding a Hamilton circuit in a

complete graph such that the total weight of its edges is minimal.

Travelling Salesman Problem
Example 16:
For example, suppose that the salesman
wants to visit Detroit, Toledo, Saginaw,
Grand Rapids, and Kalamazoo. In which
order should he visit these cities to travel the
minimum total distance?

Travelling Salesman Problem-Solution
• To solve this problem we can assume the salesman starts in Detroit (because this must
be part of the circuit) and examine all possible ways for him to visit the other four
cities and then return to Detroit (starting elsewhere will produce the same circuits).
• There are a total of 24 such circuits, but because we travel the same distance when we
travel a circuit in reverse order, we need only consider 12 different circuits to find the
minimum total distance he must travel.
• We list these 12 different circuits and the total distance traveled for each circuit.
• As can be seen from the list, the minimum total distance of 458 miles is traveled using
the circuit Detroit-Toledo-Kalamazoo-Grand Rapids-Saginaw-Detroit (or its reverse).

Planar graph
• In graph theory, a planar graph is a graph that can be embedded in the plane,
i.e., it can be drawn on the plane in such a way that its edges intersect only at
their endpoints. In other words, it can be drawn in such a way that no edges cross
each other.
Examples of planner graph:

Nonplanar graph
• A graph is said to be non-planar if it cannot be drawn in a plane so that no edge
cross.
• These graphs cannot be drawn in a plane so that no edges cross hence they are
non-planar graphs.
Examples of non-planner graph:

Graph Coloring
• A graph coloring is an assignment of labels, called colors, to the vertices of
a graph such that no two adjacent vertices share the same color.
• The chromatic number of a graph is denoted by (G). (Here is the Greek
letter chi.) is the minimal number of colors for which such an assignment is
possible.
• Other types of colorings on graphs also exist, most notably edge colorings that
may be subject to various constraints.

THE FOUR-COLOR THEOREM
Theorem: The chromatic number of a planar graph is no greater than four.
• Note that the Four Color Theorem applies only to planar graphs. Non-planar
graphs can have arbitrarily large chromatic numbers
Example 18: What are the chromatic numbers of the graph G shown in
below Figure? Solution

Graph Coloring - Explanation
• The chromatic number of G is at least three, because the vertices a, b, and c must
be assigned different colors.
• To see if G can be colored with three colors, assign red to a, blue to b, and green to
c.
• Then, d can (and must) be colored red because it is adjacent to b and c.
• Furthermore, e can (and must) be colored green because it is adjacent only to
vertices colored red and blue, and f can (and must) be colored blue because it is
adjacent only to vertices colored red and green.
• Finally, g can (and must) be colored red because it is adjacent only to vertices
colored blue and green. This produces a coloring of G using exactly three colors.
• Hence, G has a chromatic number equal to 3.

Graph Coloring
Example 19: What are the chromatic numbers of the graph H shown in below
Figure?
Solution

Applications of Graph Coloring
Graph coloring has a variety of applications to problems involving scheduling and

assignments.
1. Scheduling Final Exams: How can the final exams at a university be
scheduled so that no student has two exams at the same time?
For instance, suppose there are seven finals to be scheduled. Suppose the courses
are numbered I through 7. Suppose that the following pairs of courses have
common students: I and 2, I and 3, I and 4, I and 7, 2 and 3, 2 and 4, 2 and 5, 2 and
7,3 and 4,3 and 6, 3 and 7, 4 and 5, 4 and 6, 5 and 6, 5 and 7, and 6 and 7.

In Figure , the graph
associated with this set of
classes is shown.
Because the chromatic

number of this graph is 4
four time slots are needed.
A coloring of the graph
using four colors and the
associated schedule are
shown in Figure.

Applications of Graph Coloring
Some other applications:

1. Mobile radio frequency assignment
2. Sudoku
3. Register allocation
4. Map coloring
5. Clustering
6. Data mining
7. Image capturing
8. Process scheduling

Trees
• A connected graph that contains no simple circuits is called a tree. Since a tree
cannot have a circuit, a tree cannot contain multiple edges or loops. Therefore, any
tree must be a simple graph.
• Tree are used to construct efficient algorithms for locating items in a list.
• Trees can be used in algorithms, such as Huffman coding, that construct efficient
codes saving cost in data transmission and storage.
• Trees can be used to model procedures carried out using a sequence of decisions and
these models can help determine the computational complexity of algorithms based
on a sequence of decisions, such as sorting algorithms.

Trees
Theorem: A undirected graph is a tree if and only if there is a unique simple path
between any of its vertices.
Example 1. Which of the graphs are trees?
Sol: G1, G2
Tree Terminology
• If v is a vertex of tree T other than the root, the parent of v is the unique vertex u
such that there is a directed edge from u to v.
• When u is the parent of v, v is called the child of u.
• If two vertices share the same parent, then they are called siblings.
• The ancestors of a vertex other than the root are the vertices in the path from the
root to this vertex, excluding the vertex itself and including the root.
• The descendants of a vertex v are those vertices that have v as an ancestor.
• A vertex with no children is called a leaf.
• Vertices with children are called internal vertices.

Example
Root a
b c d
e f g h
i j k l m

Example
Siblings b c d
e f g h
i j k l m

Example
Leaves a
b c d
e f g h
i j k l m

Example
a
Internal vertices
b c d
e f g h
i j k l m

Tree Terminology (Cont.)
If a is a vertex in a tree, the subtree with a as its root is:

• the subgraph of the tree consisting of a and its
descendants, and
• all edges incident to these descendants.
a
Subtree at b Subtree at d
b c d
e f g h
i j k l m
Tree Traversal
• Ordered trees are often used to restore data/info.
• Tree traversal is a procedure for systematically visiting each vertex of an
ordered rooted tree to access data.
• Tree traversal algorithm
– Preorder, inorder and postorder traversal

Preorder Traversal
• Let T be an ordered rooted tree with root r.
– If T consists only of r, then r is the preorder traversal of T.
– If T1, T2, …, Tn are subtrees at r from left to right in T, then the preorder
traversal begins by visiting r, continues by traversing T1 in preorder, then T2
in preorder, and so on until Tn is traversed in preorder.
r STEP 1
Visit r TIPS
Preorder Traversal:
Visit root, visit
subtrees left to right
T1 T2 … Tn
STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP n+1

Visit T1 in preorder Visit T2 in preorder Visit Tn in preorder
EXAMPLE: Preorder Traversal
a a b e f c d g h i
T b d
c
• • • • • • •
e f k m
g h i j l
j k m
l n ITERATION 2
o p
n
o p a b e j k f c d g l m h i
• • • • • • • • • • • •
a b c d
• • n ITERATION 3
o p
e f
g h i
k ab e j k n opf c dgl m h i
j m
l •• • ••• ••• • ••• • • •
ITERATION 4
n
o p
ITERATION 1
The preorder traversal of T
Inorder Traversal
– If T consists only of r, then r is the inorder traversal of T.
– If T1, T2, …, Tn are subtrees at r from left to right in T, then the inorder
traversal begins by traversing T1 in inorder, then visiting r, continues
by traversing T2 in inorder, and so on until Tn is traversed in inorder.
r STEP 2
Visit r TIPS
Inorder Traversal:
Visit leftmost
subtree, Visit root,
T1 T2 … Tn Visit other subtrees
left to right.
STEP 1 STEP 3 STEP n+1
Visit T1 in inorder Visit T2 in inorder Visit Tn in inorder
EXAMPLE: Inorder Traversal
a e b f a c g d h i
T b d
c
• • • • • • •
e f k m
g h i j l
j k m
l n ITERATION 2
o p
n
o p j e k b f a c l g m d h i
• • • • • •• • • • • •
b a c d
• • n ITERATION 3
o p
e f
g h i
k j e n k opb f ac l g m d h i
j m
l •• • •••• ••••• • • • •
ITERATION 4
n
o p
ITERATION 1
The inorder traversal of T
Postorder Traversal
– If T consists only of r, then r is the postorder traversal of T.
– If T1, T2, …, Tn are subtrees at r from left to right in T, then the preorder
traversal begins by traversing T1 in postorder, then T2 in postorder, and so
on until Tn is traversed in postorder and ends by visiting r.
r STEP n+1
Visit r TIPS
Postorder Traversal:
Visit subtrees left to
right, Visit root.
T1 T2 … Tn
STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP n

Visit T1 in postorder Visit T2 in postorder Visit Tn in postorder
EXAMPLE: Postorder Traversal
a e f b c g h i d a
T b d
c
• • • • • • •
e f k m
g h i j l
j k m
l n ITERATION 2
o p
n
o p j f b c l m g h i da
k e
• • • • • • • • • •••
b c d a
• • n o p
ITERATION 3
e f
g h i
k j n o pk e f bc l m g hi d a
j m
l •• • ••• ••• •• • •• • •
ITERATION 4
n
o p
ITERATION 1
The postorder traversal of T
Summary

Exercise
In which order does

a) preorder traversal
b) inorder traversal
c) postorder traversal
visit the vertices in the ordered
rooted tree?

Spanning Tree
Example: Consider the system of roads in Maine represented by the simple graph
shown in Figure (a). The only way the roads can be kept open in the winter is by
frequently plowing them. The highway department wants to plow the fewest roads so
that there will always be cleared roads connecting any two towns. How can this be
done?

Spanning Tree
At least five roads must be plowed to ensure that there is a path between any two
towns. Figure (b) shows one such set of roads. Note that the subgraph representing
these roads is a tree, because it is connected and contains six vertices and five edges.
This problem was solved with a connected sub graph with the minimum number of
edges containing all vertices of the original simple graph.

Spanning Tree
Theorem: Let G be a simple graph. A spanning tree of G is a sub graph of G that
is a tree containing every vertex of G.
• A simple graph with a spanning tree must be connected, because there is a
path in the spanning tree between any two vertices.
• The converse is also true; that is, every connected simple graph has a
spanning tree
Example: Find a spanning tree of the simple graph G shown in Figure.

Spanning Tree
The sequence of edge removals used to produce the spanning tree is

illustrated in Figure below.
Producing a spanning tree for G by removing edges that form simple

circuits

Spanning Tree of G

Applications of Spanning Tree
• IP Multicasting: Spanning trees play an important role in multicasting over Internet
Protocol (IP) networks.
• To send data from a source computer to multiple receiving computers, each of which is a sub
network, data could be sent separately to each computer.
• This type of networking, called unicasting, is inefficient, because many copies of the same
data are transmitted over the network.
• To make the transmission of data to multiple receiving computers more efficient, IP
multicasting is used.
• With IP multicasting, a computer sends a single copy of data over the network, and as data
reaches intermediate routers, the data are forwarded to one or more other routers so that
ultimately all receiving computers in their various sub networks receive these data.

Applications of Spanning Tree
• For data to reach receiving computers as quickly as possible, there should be no loops
(which in graph theory terminology are circuits or cycles) in the path that data take
through the network.
• That is, once data have reached a particular router, data should never return to this
router.
• To avoid loops, the multicast routers use network algorithms to construct a spanning
tree in the graph that has the multicast source, the routers, and the sub networks
containing receiving computers as vertices, with edges representing the links between
computers and/or routers.
• The root of this spanning tree is the multicast source. The sub networks containing
receiving computers are leaves of the tree.

Summary / Recap of Main Points
• Introduction
• Definition
• Degree of a Vertex
• Graphs & Representations
• Paths & Circuits
• Shortest path
• Graph coloring
• Planar Graph
• Tree terminology
• Tree traversals
• Spanning tree

Graphs and Trees

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Graphs and Trees

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Mathematical Concepts For Computing

GRAPHS AND TREES

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 2

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 3

Technical meaning in discrete mathematics:

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 4

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 5

G=(V, E), where

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 7

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 8

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 9

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 10

Simple directed graphs: When a directed graph has no loops and no

u v The two edges (u,v),(u,v) are

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 11

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 12

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 13

Note : adjacent: a vertex connected to a vertex

(Note : A loop adds 2 to the degree.)

Note: A vertex of degree 0 is called isolated.

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 16

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 17

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 18

Example 6: Draw a simple undirected graph whose degree sequence is

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 20

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 21

Sol : Vertex Adjacent Vertices

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 22

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 23

Example 9: Use adjacency matrix to describe the simple graph given

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 24

If A=[aij] is the adjacency matrix for the directed graph, then

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 26

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 27

• An Euler circuit in a graph G is a simple circuit containing every edge of G.

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 28

Is it possible to start at some

Example 12: Which of the following graphs has an Euler circuit?

yes no no, but has Euler path

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 31

Example 13: Which of the following graphs have a Hamilton

Dodecahedron puzzle and it equivalent graph

Is there a circuit in this graph that passes through each vertex

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 34

Articulation point: A vertex in an undirected connected graph is an

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 35

Hamilton circuit Exists

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 36

Hamilton circuit doesn’t exist because

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 37

Hamilton circuit doesn’t exist because

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 38

Find the Hamilton circuit.

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 39

DISTANCE: Problems involving

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 40

TIME: Problems involving ﬂight time can

FARE: Problems involving fares can be

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 41

Example 15: What is the length of a shortest

AQ010-3-1-MCFC Graphs and Trees SLIDE 42

Travelling Salesman Problem: A Hamilton circuit or path may be used to solve

A classic example is the Travelling Salesman Problem finding a Hamilton circuit in a